MEDICAL 


CARPENTER 


ON 


ALCOHOLIC    LIQUORS, 


PRIZE    ESSAY. 

ON  THE 

USE  AND  ABUSE 

OF 

ALCOHOLIC  LIQUOR^, 

IN  HEALTH  AND  DISEASE. 
BY  WILLIAM  B.  CARPENTER,  M.D.,  F.R.S., 

fcXAMISKR  IN  PHYSIOLOGY  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  LONDON,  PROFESSOR  0*  MJftlCAi 

JURISPRUDENCE  IN  UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE,  AND  AUTHOR  OJ 
"THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  PHYSIOLOGY,"  ETC.  HW; 


WITH   A   PREFACE, 


BY   D.   F.    CONDIE,    M.D., 

WCRETARY  OF  THE  COLLEGE  OP  PHYSICIANS  OF  PHILADELPHIA,   AND  AUTHOR  0?  A 
"PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  DISEASES  OF  CHILDREN,"  ETC.  ETC. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
HENKY    C.    LEA. 

1866. 


PREFACE  BY  DR.  CONDIE. 


THE  opinion  that  Alcoholic  Liquors  afford  to  the  human  system  a 
stimulus,  which,  if  not  absolutely  necessary  to  its  well-being,  is. 
nevertheless,  beneficial,  by  promoting  in  the  several  organs  a  vigor- 
ous and  healthful  exercise  of  their  respective  functions,  and  by 
enabling  them,  thus,  to  resist  more  effectually  the  various  disturbing 
agencies  to  which  they  are  daily  subjected,  is  one  that  has  been  long 
entertained,  and  of  the  correctness  of  which  a  large  portion  of  the 
public  still  entertains  a  firm  conviction.  To  the  influence  of  this 
opinion  may  be  ascribed  much  of  the  intemperance  that  has  prevailed 
in  the  world,  and  it  even  now  presents  a  formidable  barrier  to  the 
success  of  every  effort  at  reform  in  respect  to  the  use  of  intoxicating 
liquors  as  a  beverage. 

All  are  agreed  as  to  the  baneful  influence  upon  health  and  morals 
resulting  from  the  excessive  use  of  alcoholic  drinks,  and  of  the  im- 
portance of  guarding  against  this  abuse  of  them  by  every  means 
within  our  power.  But  so  long  as  the  opinion  prevails,  that  in 
moderate  quantities  the  use  of  these  drinks  is  both  proper  and 
salutary,  it  will  scarcely  be  possible  to  guard  the  masses  against 
indulgence  in  them  to  excess  —  every  effort  to  stay  the  progress  of 
intemperance,  with  its  attendant  evils,  disease,  poverty,  insanity 
and  crime,  will  be  unavailing. 


vi  EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 

To  test  the  truth  of  the  opinion  referred  to,  by  an  examination 
of  the  effects  produced  upon  the  human  frame  by  the  use  of  alco- 
holic drinks,  whether  in  moderate  or  excessive  doses,  is  the  object 
of  the  present  Essay.  And  we  know  of  nothing  that  has  been 
written  upon  this  important  question  better  calculated  to  eradicate 
the  prejudices  which  still  exist  in  respect  to  intoxicating  liquors, 
and  to  prevent  the  habitual  abuse  of  them,  by  showing  that  their 
occasional  moderate  use,  so  far  from  promoting  the  health  and 
vigour  of  the  human  frame,  or  increasing  its  capacity  to  sustain 
bodily  or  mental  labour,  or  to  resist  the  extremes  of  cold  and  heat, 
and  other  depressing  agencies,  is,  on  the  contrary,  under  all  circum- 
stances, rather  injurious  than  beneficial. 

The  author  of  the  Essay  is  one  in  every  respect  well  qualified  to 
accomplish  satisfactorily  the  task  he  has  undertaken,  by  his  acknow- 
ledged familiarity,  as  a  physiologist,  with  the  functions  of  the 
human  system  in  a  state  of  health,  and  by  his  acquaintance,  as  an 
able  and  skilful  practitioner  of  medicine,  with  the  different  agencies 
by  which  those  functions  are  disturbed  or  impeded,  and  the  normal 
condition  of  the  living  organism  replaced  by  one  of  disease.  He 
brings  to  the  investigation  all  the  light  which  science  can  shed  upon 
it,  as  well  as  the  accumulation  of  facts  derived  from  experience  and 
observation. 

Although  we  may  differ  from  him  as  to  the  value  of  alcoholic 
drinks  as  a  remedy  for  the  cure  of  disease,  still,  in  all  his  leading 
conclusions,  as  to  the  effects  of  these  liquors  upon  the  corporeal, 
mental  and  moral  functions  of  the  healthy  human  system,  he  is  fully 
borne  out  by  the  results  of  our  own  observations  and  experience, 
acquired  during  a  long  series  of  years'  prLctice  as  a  physician,  and 
as  an  active  participator  in  the  effort  at  temperance  reform,  which, 
originating  with  a  few  philanthropists  in  the  United  States,  speedily 
enlisted  the  co-operation  of  "  thousands  of  the  best  and  most  talented 
individuals"  of  our  own  and  other  lands. 


EDITORS    PREFACE.  VH 

Believing  that  the  promotion  of  Temperance  may  be  effectually 
accomplished  by  enlightening  men's  understandings  in  regard  to  the 
actual  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  upon  the  body  and  the  mind,  and 
--thus  enlisting  in  its  favour  the  strongest  motives  by  which  human 
actions  are  influenced  —  the  promotion  of  happiness,  the  preserva- 
tion of  health  and  vigour  of  frame,  and  the  prolongation  of  life — 
we  recommend  to  all  the  present  Essay  of  DR.  CARPENTER,  as  one 
of  the  best  text-books  of  Temperance  extant.  We  are  persuaded 
that  its  extensive  circulation  will  do  much  towards  bringing  about 
the  only  result  by  which  drunkenness  can  be  banished  from  our 
midst  —  namely,  entire  abstinence  from  all  alcoholic  drinks. 

By  the  publication  of  the  present  cheap  edition,  Messrs.  Blanchard 
and  Lea  have  placed  the  work  within  the  reach  of  every  one ;  and 
their  effort  thus  to  aid  in  the  diffusion  of  sound  temperance  doctrines 
will,  we  trust,  be  seconded  by  the  advocates  of  those  doctrines 
throughout  our  country. 

To  popularize  as  far  as  possible  this  edition,  the  various  technical 
phrases  which  occur  in  it  have  been  explained,  so  as  to  render  theii 

meaning  familiar  to  the  unscientific  reader. 

D.  F.  C. 

Philadelphia,  October,  1853. 


HIS    ROYAL    HIGHNESS 
TRIKCE  ALBEET, 


IS 

(BY  PERMISSION) 
MOST    RESPECTFULLY    DEDICATED; 

AS    AN 

BXPRESSION     OP     THE     AUTHOR'S     ADMIRATI0 
OP   HIS    ROYAL    HIGHNESS'S    ENDEAVOURS 

TO    ELEVATE 
THE    SOCIAL    CONDITION   OF    HIS    ADOPTED    COUNTRY; 

AND    WITH    THE    FIRM   BELIEF 

THAT  THE  PATRONAGE  NOW  SO  GRACIOUSLY  CONCEDED, 
WILL    AID     IN     CALLING     THE     ATTENTION     OF     THE     PUBLIC 

i 

TO    THE    SUBJECT    OF    THE    PRESENT    ENQUIRY, 

IN   A   DEGREE    COMMENSURATE 

WITH    ITS    IMPORTANCE. 


ADVERTISEMENT 

ISSUED  BY  DIRECTION   OP   THE   DONOR   OP   THE   PRIZE. 


A  PRIZE  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  GUINEAS 

WILL  BE   GIVEN   FOR  THE   BEST   ESSAY   ON   THE   USE   OP  ALCO- 
HOLIC  LIQUORS   IN   HEALTH   AND  DISEASE. 


The  Essay  must  contain  answers  to  the  following  questions  : — 

1st. — What  are  the  effects,  corporeal  and  mental,  of  Alcoholic  Liquors 
on  the  healthy  human  system  ? 

2nd. — Does  physiology  or  experience  teach  us,  that  Alcoholic  Liquors 
should  form  part  of  the  ordinary  sustenance  of  Man,  particu- 
larly under  circumstances  of  exposure  to  severe  labour  or  to 
extremes  of  temperature?  Or,  on  the  other  hand,  is  there 
reason  for  believing  that  such  use  of  them  is  not  sanctioned 
by  the  principles  of  science,  or  the  results  of  practical  obser- 
vation ? 

3rd. — Are  there  any  special  modifications  of  the  bodily  or  mental  condi- 
tion of  Man,  short  of  actual  disease,  in  which  the  occasional 
or  habitual  use  of  Alcoholic  Liquors  may  be  necessary  or  bene- 
ficial ? 

4th. — Is  the  employment  of  Alcoholic  Liquors  necessary  in  the  practice 
of  Medicine  ?  If  so,  in  what  diseases,  or  in  what  forms  and 
stages  of  disease,  is  the  use  of  them  necessary  or  beneficial  ? 

The  Essay  must  be  delivered  to  the  undersigned  address,  on  or 
before  the  30th  day  of  September,  1849. 


Kll  ADVERTISEMENT. 

DR.  JOHN  FORBES,  F.R.S.,  Physician  to  the  Queen's  House- 
hold,  Prince  Albert,  and  the  Duke  of  Cambridge ;  DR.  G.  L.  Rou- 
PELL,  F.R.S.,  Physician  to  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital;  and  DR. 
W.  A.  GUY,  M.B.,  Cantab.,  Professor  of  Forensic  Medicine,  King's 
College,  London,  have  kindly  consented  to  act  as  Adjudicators. 
Signed  on  behalf  of  the  Donor, 

CHARLES  GILPIN, 
THOMAS  BEGGS. 

6,  Bishopsgate  Street  Without, 
London,  April,  1848. 


ADJUDICATION. 

FROM  the  fifteen  MS.  Essays  on  the  Use  and  Abuse  of  Alco- 
holic Liquors,  transmitted  to  us  by  Messrs.  Beggs  and  Gilpin  for 
adjudication,  we  have  unanimously  selected  as  the  best,  the  one 
bearing  the  motto  —  Mens  sana  in  corpore  sano.  We  accordingly 
adjudicate  to  its  author  the  Prize  of  One  Hundred  Guineas. 

We  also  think  it  due  to  the  Author  of  the  Essay  bearing  the 
'motto  —  Quot  homines  tot  sententiae,  to  record  our  opinion  of  its 
great  merits. 

We  further  deem  it  right  to  speak  in  terms  of  commendation  of 
the  Essay  having  five  mottoes,  the  first  of  which  is  —  How  use  doth 
breed  a  habit  in  a  man. 

JOHN  FORBES,  M.D. 

(Signed)  G.  L.  ROUPELL,  M.D. 

WILLIAM  A.  GUY,  M.B. 

London,  December  6th,  1849. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PAOB 

>VHAT  ARE  THE  EFFECTS,  CORPOREAL  AND  MENTAL,  OF  ALCOHOLIC 

LIQUORS  ON  THE  HEALTHY  HUMAN  SYSTEM? 25 

SECT.  I.  —  Influence  of  Alcohol   upon   the   Physical,  Chemical 
and  Vital  Properties  of  the  Animal  Tissues   and 

Fluids 25 

Corrugation  of  Tissues 25 

Coagulation  of  Albumen 26 

Impairment  of  solidifiability  of  Fibrine 27 

Irritating  action  on  Living  Tissues 27 

Temporary  exaltation  of  Nervous  Power 28 

Change  in  red  Corpuscles 29 

SECT.  II.  —  Immediate  Consequences  of  the  Excessive  Use   of 

Alcoholic  Liquors  on  the  General  System 30 

Phenomena  of  Alcoholic  Intoxication 30 

Symptoms   and   Post-mortem   appearances  of  Alco- 
holic poisoning 32 

Pathology  of  Alcoholic  Intoxication 34 

SECT.  III.  — Remote  consequences  of  the  excessive  Use  of  Alco- 
holic Liquors 38 

Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System 38 

Delirium  Ebriosum 88 

2  fxiii) 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

PAOH 

Delirium  Tremens 39 

Insanity 42 

Oinomania 45 

Mental  Debility  in  the  Offspring 48 

Inflammatory  Diseases  of  the  Brain 50 

Apoplexy 50 

Paralysis  and  Epilepsy 52 

Diseases  of  the  Alimentary  Canal 53 

Irritation  and  Inflammation  of  the  Mucous  Mem- 
brane of  the  Stomach 54 

Inflammatory  Gastric  Dyspepsia 57 

Disorders  of  the  Intestinal  Mucous  Membrane..  58 

Diseases  of  the^Liver 59 

Acute  and  Chronic  Inflammation  of  the  Liver  ...  59 

Hypertrophy  and  Atrophy  of  the  Liver GO 

Diseases  of  the  Kidneys '"I 

Diseases  of  the  Skin 62 

General  Disorders  of  Nutrition 63 

Tendency  to  the  Deposition  of  Fat 64 

Diminished   Power    of    Sustaining   Injuries  by 

Disease  or  Accident 65 

Liability  to  Epidemic  Diseases 67 

Gout  and  Rheumatism 68 

Diseases  of  the  Heart  and  Arteries 69 

Spontaneous  Combustion 69 

SECT.  IV.  —  General  effect  of  the  Excessive  Use  of  Alcoholic 

Liquors  on  the^Duration  of  Life < 71 

Experience  of  Insurance  Offices 72 

Specially  injurious  influence  of  Excess  in  Warm  Cli- 
mates   73 

Statistics  of  the  Indian  Army 75 


CONTENTS.  X7 


CHAPTER  II. 

PASl 

DOES  PHYSIOLOGY  OR  EXPERIENCE  TEACH  us  THAT  ALCOHOLIC 
LIQUORS  SHOULD  FORM  PART  OF  THE  ORDINARY  SUSTENANCE  OF 
MAN,  PARTICULARLY  UNDER  CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  EXPOSURE  TO 
SEVERE  LABOUR,  OR  TO  EXTREMES  OF  TEMPERATURE  ?  OR,  ON  THE 
OTHER  HAND,  IS  THERE  REASON  FOR  BELIEVING  THAT  SUCH  USE  OF 
THEM  IS  NOT  SANCTIONED  BY  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  SCIENCE,  OR  BY 

THE    RESULTS    OF    PRACTICAL   OBSERVATION? 81 

SECT.      I. — Endurance  of  Bodily  Exertion 81 

SECT.    II.  —  Endurance  of  Mental  Exertion 92 

SECT.  III.  —  Endurance  of  Cold 96 

SECT.  IV. — Endurance  of  Heat 108 

SECT.    V. — Resistance  to  Morbific  Agencies 118 

SECT.  VI. — Consequence  of  the  Habitual  "Moderate"  Use  of 

Alcoholic  Liquors 123 

Effect  upon  the  Stomach 128 

Effect  upon  the  Nervous  System 130 

Effect  upon  the  Circulation 132 

Effect  upon  Nutrition 135 


CHAPTER   III. 

ARE  THERE  ANY  SPECIAL  MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  BODILY  OR  MENTAL 
CONDITION  OF  MAN,  SHORT  OF  ACTUAL  DISEASE,  IN  WHICH  THE  OCCA- 
SIONAL OR  HABITUAL  USE  OF  ALCOHOLIC  LlQUORS  MAY  BE  NECES- 
SARY OR  BENEFICIAL  ? 138 

SECT.      I. — Demand  for  Extraordinary  Exertion 138 

SECT.    II. — Deficiency  of  other  Adequate  Sustenance 142 

SECT.  III.  —  Deficiency  of  Constitutional  Vigour 145 

Pregnancy 150 

Lactation 151 

Childhood 154 

Old  Age 156 


XVI  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

PAOi 

Is  THE  EMPLOYMENT  or  ALCOHOLIC  LIQUORS  NECESSARY  IN  THE  PRAC- 
TICE OF  MEDICINE  ?    IF  so,  IN  WHAT  DISEASES,  OR  IN  WHAT  FORM 

AND     STAGES     OF     DISEASE,    IS     THE     USE    OF    THEM    NECESSARY     OR 
BENEFICIAL? 161 

SECT.     I.  —  Recovery  from  Shock 161 

SECT.  II. — Treatment  of  Acute  Diseases 162 

Resistance  to  the  depressing  influence  of  Morbific 

Agents ]G2 

Recovery  from  states  of  Prostration 164 

Support  under  Exhausting  Drains 16G 

Forms  of  Alcoholic  Liquors  most  desirable 167    f 

SECT.  III.  —  Treatment  of  Chronic  Diseases 168 


APPENDIX  A 17!i 

«          B 175 

««         c 176 


PREFACE. 


THE  circumstances  under  which  the  following  Essay  is  giveu  to 
the  Public,  are  sufficiently  explained  by  the  preceding  Advertise- 
ment and  Adjudication;  but  the  Author  takes  this  opportunity  of 
offering  a  short  statement  of  the  objects  which  he  had  especially  in 
view  in  its  composition. 

The  questions  set  forth  in  the  Advertisement  having  been  evi- 
dently drawn  up  with  great  care,  and  having  been  obviously  in- 
tended to  bring  the  whole  subject  of  the  ordinary  as  well  as  the 
medical  employment  of  Alcoholic  Liquors  under  discussion,  the 
Author  judged  it  advisable  to  follow  the  plan  which  they  had 
narked  out,  by  answering  each  of  them  seriatim  ;  '  although  he  was 
iware  that,  by  so  doing,  a  certain  amount  of  repetition  would  be 
ilmost  necessarily  involved.  He  found,  as  he  proceeded,  that  it 
urould  be  impossible  to  maintain  such  a  continuity  in  his  argument, 
is  would  be  desirable  for  its  effectiveness  j  and  he  would  therefore 
request  his  readers,  in  liminef  to  keep  the  following  issue  in  view, 
as  those  to  which  he  is  desirous  of  leading  them. 

In  the  first  place,  —  That  from  a  scientific  examination  of  »lhe 
m  ->dus  operandi*  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Human  body,  when  taken 
In  i  poisonous  dose,  or  to  such  an  extent  as  to  produce  Intoxication 
we   may  fairly  draw  inferences  with  regard  to  the  specific4  effect? 

1  Seriatim  —  in  order. 

*  In  limine  —  at  the  outset. 

•  Modus  operand! — the  mode  or  way  in  which  it  acts 
4  Specific  —  peculiar. 

2  *  (xvii) 


XV111  PREFACE. 

which  it  is  likely  -to  produce,  when  repeatedly  taken  in  excess,  but 
not  to  an  immediately-fatal  amount. 

Secondly, — That  the  consequences  of  the  excessive  use  of  Alco- 
holic liquors,  as  proved  by  the  experience  of  the  Medical  Profes- 
sion, and  universally  admitted  by  medical  writers,  being  precisely 
such  as  the  study  of  its  effects  in  poisonous  and  immediately-fatal 
doses  would  lead  us  to  anticipate,  we  are  further  justified  in  ex- 
pecting that  the  habitual  use  of  smaller  quantities  of  these  liquors, 
if  sufficiently  prolonged,  will  ultimately  be  attended,  in  a  large  pro- 
portion of  cases,  with  consequences  prejudicial  to  the  human  sys- 
tem,— the  morbid  actions  thus  engendered  being  likely  rather  to  be 
chronic,1  than  acute,2  in  their  character. 

Thirdly, — That  as  such  morbid  actions  are  actually  found  to  be 
among  the  most  common  disorders  of  persons  advanced  in  life,  who 
have  been  in  the  habit  of  taking  a  "  moderate"  allowance  of  alco- 
holic liquors,  there  is  very  strong  ground  for  regarding  them  as  in 
great  degree  dependent  upon  the  asserted  cause ;  although  the  long 
postponement  of  their  effects  may  render  it  impossible  to  demon- 
strate the  existence  of  such  a  connexion. 

Fourthly, — That  the  preceding  conclusion  is  fully  borne  out  by 
the  proved  results  of  the  "  moderate"  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors,  in 
producing  a  marked  liability  to  the  acute  forms  of  similar  diseases 
in  hot  climates,  where  their  action  is  accelerated  by  other  condi- 
tions ;  and  also  by  the  analogous  facts  now  universally  admitted,  in 
regard  to  the  remotely-injurious  effects  of  slight  excess  in  diet,  im- 
perfect aeration  of  the  blood,3  insufficient  repose,  and  other  like 
violations  of  the  Laws  of  Health,  when  habitually  practised  through 
a  long  period  of  time. 

Fifthly r, —  That  the  capacity  of  the  healthy  Human  system  to 
sustain  as  much  bodily  or  mental  labour  as  it  can  be  legitimately 
called  upon  to  perform,  and  its  power  of  resisting  the  extremes  of 
Heat  and  Cold,  as  well  as  other  depressing  agencies,  are  not  aug- 
mented by  the  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors ;  but  that,  on  the  other 

1  Chronit. — slow:   of  long  continuance. 

a  Acute  —  rapid  in  progress. 

3  Aeration  of  the  blood — the  change  produced  in  the  blood  by  its  being 
brought  in  contact  with  the  atmospheric  air  during  its  passage  through 
the  lungs 


PREFACE.  XIX 

hand,  their  use,  under  such  circumstances,  tends  positively  to  the 
impairment  of  that  capacity. 

Sixthly, — That  where  there  is  a  deficiency  of  power,  on  the  part 
of  the  system,  to  carry  on  its  normal1  actions  with  the  energy  and 
regularity  which  constitute  health,  such  power  can  rarely  be  im- 
parted by  the  habitual  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors ;  its  deficiency  being 
generally  consequent  upon  some  habitual  departure  from  the  laws 
of  health,  for  which  the  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  cannot  compen- 
sate; and  the  employment  of  such^  liquors,  although  with  the  tem- 
porary effect  of  palliating  the  disorder,  having  not  merely  a  re- 
motely-injurious effect  per  sef  but  also  tending  to  mask  the  action 
of  other  morbific3  causes,  by  rendering  the  system  more  tolerant  of 
them. 

Seventhly,  —  That,  consequently,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Medical 
Practitioner  to  discourage  as  much  as  possible  the  habitual  use  of 
Alcoholic  liquors,  in  however  "  moderate"  a  quantity,  by  all  per- 
sons in  ordinary  health ;  and  to  seek  to  remedy  those  slight  depar- 
tures from  health,  which  result  from  the  "wear  and  tear"  of  active 
life,  by  the  means  which  shall  most  directly  remove  or  antagonize 
their  causes,  instead  of  by  such  as  simply  palliate  their  effects. 

J&ghthty,  —  That  whilst  the  habitual  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors, 
even  in  the  most  "  moderate"  amount,  is  likely  (except  in  a  few 
rare  instances)  to  be  rather  injurious  than  beneficial,  great  benefit 
may  be  derived  in  the  treatment  of  Disease,  from  the  medicinal  use 
of  Alcohol  in  appropriate  cases ;  but  that  the  same  care  should  be 
employed  in  the  discriminating  selection  of  those  cases,  as  would  be 
taken  by  the  conscientious  practitioner  in  regard  to  the  administra- 
tion of  any  other  powerful  remedy  which  is  poisonous  in  large 


The  foregoing  appear  to  the  Author  to  be  the  conclusions  legiti- 
mately deducible  from  the  facts  and  arguments  which  he  has  brought 
forwards;  it  will  be  for  his  Professional  readers  to  decide,  how  far 
the  case  which  he  has  made  out  is  sufficiently  strong  to  lead  them 

1  Normal  —  appropriate;  proper;  healthy, 
Q  Per  se  —  by  or  of  themselves. 
3  Morbific  —  disease-producing. 


KX  PREFACE. 

to  the  same  results.  This  much,  however,  he  would  add;  that 
when  he  first  entered  upon  the  investigation,  some  years  ago, 
he  had  adopted  no  foregone  conclusion,  and  had,  consequently,  no 
temptation  to  make  the  facts  square  with  preconceived  views ;  that 
he  has  constantly  endeavoured  to  treat  the  subject  as  one  of  purely 
scientific  inquiry,  and  has  avoided  mixing  up  any  other  considera- 
tions with  those  which  presented  themselves  to  him  as  a  Physiologist 
and  a  Physician ;  and  that,  for  the  sake  of  keeping  himself  free 
from  even  the  appearance  of  partizanship,  he  has  never  allied  him- 
self with  any  one  of  the  Societies,  which  have  been  formed  to  carry 
into  practical  effect  the  Total  Abstinence  principle,  but  has  pre- 
ferred to  follow  a  perfectly  independent  course.  He  ventures  to  hope 
that  on  these  grounds  he  may  claim  some  right  to  being  candidly 
heard,  by  those  to  whom  this  Essay  is  more  especially  addressed. 

He  cannot  allow  it  to  go  forth,  however,  without  expressing  his 
conviction,  that,  whilst  there  are  adequate  Medical  reasons  for  Ab- 
stinence from  the  habitual  use  of  even  a  u  moderate  "  quantity  of 
Alcoholic  liquors,  there  are  also  strong  Moral  grounds  for  Abstinence 
from  that  occasional  use  of  them,  which  is  too  frequently  thought 
to  be  requisite  for  social  enjoyment,  and  to  form  an  essential  part 
of  the  rites  of  hospitality.  The  experience  of  every  Practitioner 
must  bring  the  terrible  results  of  Intemperance  frequently  before 
his  eyes ;  but  whilst  he  is  thus  rendered  familiar  with  its  conse- 
quences as  regards  individuals,  few,  save  those  who  have  expressly 
enquired  into  the  subject,  have  any  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  social 
evils  resulting  from  it,  or  of  the  degree  in  which  they  press  upon 
every  member  of  the  community.  The  Author  believes  that  he  is 
justified  in  the  assertion,  that  among  those  who  have  thus  enquired, 
there  is  but  one  opinion  as  to  the  fact,  that,  of  all  the  causes  which 
are  at  present  conspiring  to  degrade  the  physical,  moral,  and  intel- 
lectual condition  of  the  mass  of  the  people,  there  is  not  one  to  be 
compared  in  potency  with  the  Abuse  of  Alcoholic  liquors;  and 
that,  if  this  could  be  done  away  with,  the  removal  of  all  other 
causes  would  be  immeasurably  promoted.  Every  one  who  wishes 
well  to  his  kind,  therefore,  must  be  interested  in  the  enquiry  how 
this  monster-evil  can  be  best  eradicated. 

Now  the  Author  considers,  that  the  best  answer  to  this  enquiry 
bas  been  found  in  the  results  of  experience.     A  fair  trial  has  been 


PREFACE.  XXI 

given,  both  in  this  country  and  in  the  United  States,  to  societies 
which  advocated  the  principle  of  Temperance,  and  which  enlisted  in 
their  support  a  large  number  of  intelligent  and  influential  men ;  but 
it  has  been  found  that  little  or  no  good  has  been  effected  by  them, 
among  the  classes  on  whom  it  was  most  desirable  that  their  influence 
should  be  exerted,  except  where  those  who  were  induced  to  join 
them  really  adopted  the  Total  Abstinence  principle.  Though  he 
agrees  fully  with  those  who  maintain,  that  if  all  the  world  would 
be  really  temperate,  there  would  be  no  need  of  Total  Abstinence 
Societies,  the  Author  cannot  adopt  the  inference  that  those  who 
desire  to  promote  the  Temperance  cause  may  legitimately  rest 
satisfied  with  this  measure  of  advocacy.  For  sad  experience  has 
shown,  that  a  large  proportion  of  mankind  cannot}  partly  for  want 
of  the  self-restraint  which  proceeds  from  moral  and  religious  culture, 
be  temperate  in  the  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors ;  and  that  the  reforma- 
tion of  those  who  have  acquired  habits  of  intemperance  cannot  be 
accomplished  by  any  means  short  of  entire  Abstinence  from  fer- 
mented liquors.  Further,  experience  has  shown  that,  in  the  present 
dearth  of  effectual  education  among  the  masses,  and  with  the  ex- 
isting temptations  to  Intemperance  arising  out  of  the  force  of 
example,  the  almost  compulsory  drinking-usages  of  numerous  trades, 
and  the  encouragement  which  in  various  ways  is  given  to  the  abuse 
of  Alcoholic  liquors,  nothing  short  of  Total  Abstinence  can  prevent 
the  continuance,  in  the  rising  generation,  of  the  terrible  evils  which 
we  have  at  present  to  deplore.  And  lastly,  experience  has  also  proved 
that  this  reformation  cannot  be  carried  to  its  required  extent,  with- 
out the  co-operation  of  the  educated  classes;  and  that  their  influence 
can  only  be  effectually  exerted  by  example.  There  is  no  case  in 
which  the  superiority  of  example  over  mere  precept  is  more  decided 
and  obvious,  that  it  is  in  this.  "I  practise  total  abstinence  my 
self,"  is  found  to  be  worth  a  thousand  exhortations;  and  the  lament 
able  failure  of  the  advocates  who  cannot  employ  this  argument, 
should  lead  all  those  whose  position  calls  upon  them  to  exert  their 
influence,  to  a  serious  consideration  of  the  claims  which  their  duty 
to  society  should  set  up,  in  opposition  to  their  individual  feelings  of 
taste  or  comfort. 

Among  the  most  common  objections  brought  against  the  advo- 
cates of  the  Total  Abstinence  principle,  is  the  following,  —  *'  That 


xxii  PREFACE. 

the  abuse  of  a  thing  good  in  itself  does  not  afford  a  valid  argu- 
ment against  the  right  use  of  it."  This  objection  has  been  so  well 
met  by  the  late  Archdeacon  Jeffreys  of  Bombay,  (in  a  letter  to  the 
Bombay  Courier,*)  that,  as  it  is  one  peculiarly  likely  to  occur  to 
the  mind  of  his  Medical  readers,  the  Author  thinks  it  desirable  to 
quote  a  part  of  his  reply.  — "  The  truth  is,"  he  says,  "  that  the 
adage  is  only  true  under  certain  general  limitations;  and  that  out 
of  these,  so  far  from  being  true,  it  is  utterly  false,  and  a  mischievous 
fallacy.  And  the  limitations  are  these  :  —  If  it  be  found  by  expe- 
rience, that,  in  the  general  practice  of  the  times  in  which  we  live, 
the  abuse  is  only  the  solitary  exception,  whereas  the  right  use  is 
the  general  rule,  so  that  the  whole  amount  of  good  resulting  from 
its  right  use  exceeds  the  whole  amount  of  evil  resulting  from  its 
partial  abuse,  then  the  article  in  question,  whatever  it  be,  is  fully 
entitled  to  the  benefit  of  the  adage ;  and  it  would  not  be  the  abso- 
lute and  imperative  duty  of  the  Christian  to  give  it  up  on  account 
of  its  partial  abuse.  This  is  precisely  the  position  in  which  stand 
all  the  gifts  of  Providence,  and  all  the  enjoyments  of  life;  for 
there  is  not  one  of  them  which  the  wickedness  of  man  does  not 
more  or  less  abuse.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  be  found  by  ex- 
perience that  there  is  something  so  deceitful  and  ensnaring  in  the 
article  itself,  or  something  so  peculiarly  untoward  connected  with 
the  use  of  it  in  the  present  age,  that 'the  whole  amount  of  crime, 
and  misery,  and  wretchedness  connected  with  the  abuse  of  it  greatly 
exceeds  the  whole  amount  of  benefit  arising  from  the  right  use  of 
it ;  then  the  argument  becomes  a  mischievous  fallacy,  the  article  in 
question  is  not  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  it,  and  it  becomes  the  duty 
of  every  good  man  to  get  rid  of  it."  After  alluding  to  the  evi- 
dence that  this  is  pre-eminently  the  case  with  regard  to  Alcoholic 
liquors,  the  Archdeacon  continues,  —  "  We  have  then  established 
our  principle,  in  opposition  to  the  philosophic  adage;  taking  the 
duty  of  the  citizen  and  the  patriot,  even  on  the  lowest  ground. 
But  Christian  self-denial  and  Christian  love  and  charity,  go  far  be- 
yond this.  St.  Paul  accounted  one  single  soul  so  precious,  that  he 
would  on  no  account  allow  himself  any  indulgence  that  tended 
to  endanger  a  brother's  soul.  '  If  meat  make  my  brother  to  offend, 
\  will  eat  IK>  meat  while  the  world  standeth,  lest  I  make  my  brother 


PREFACE.  XX111 

to.  offend.'  —  '  It  is  good  neither  to  eat  flesh  nor  to  drink  wine,  nor 
anything  whereby  thy  brother  stuinbleth,  or  is  offended,  or  is  made 
weak/  And  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  flesh  and  wine  are  here 
mentioned  by  Paul  as  l  good  creatures  of  God ;'  they  are  not  in- 
tended to  designate  things  evil  in  themselves.  This  saying  of  St. 
Paul  is  the  Charter  of  Teetotalism ;  and  will  remain  the  charter  of 
our  noble  cause  so  long  as  the  world  endures,  so  long  as  there  re- 
mains a  single  heart  to  love  and  revere  this  declaration  of  the  holy 
self-denying  Paul." 

If,  then,  the  Author  shoulA  succeed  in  convincing  his  readers, 
that  the  "  moderate"  habitual  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  is  not  bene- 
ficial to  the  healthy  Human  system,  —  still  more,  if  they  should  be 
led  to  agree  with  him  that  it  is  likely  to  be  injurious,  he  trusts  that 
they  will  feel  called  upon  by  the  foregoing  considerations,  to  advo- 
cate the  principle  of  Total  Abstinence,  in  whatever  manner  they 
may  individually  deem  most  likely  to  be  effectual.  He  believes  it 
to  be  in  the  power  of  the  Clerical  and  Medical  Professions  com- 
bined, so  to  influence  the  opinion  and  practice  of  the  educated 
classes,  as  to  promote  the  spread  of  this  principle  among  the 
11  masses,"  to  a  degree  which  no  other  agency  can  effect.  And  he 
ventures  to  hope  that,  whether  or  not  he  carries  his  readers  with 
him  to  the  full  extent  of  his  own  conclusions,  he  will  at  any  rate 
have  succeeded  in  convincing  them  that  so  much  is  to  be  said  on 
his  side  of  the  question,  that  it  can  no  longer  be  a  matter  of  indif- 
ference what  view  is  to  be  taken  of  it ;  and  that  as  "  universal 
experience"  has  been  put  decidedly  in  the  wrong  with  regard  to 
many  of  the  supposed  virtues  of  Alcohol,  it  is  at  any  rate  possible. 
that  its  other  attributes  rest  on  no  better  foundation.  In  his 
general  view  of  the  case,  he  has  the  satisfaction  of  finding  himself 
supported  by  the  recorded  opinion  of  a  large  body  of  his  Profes- 
sional brethren ;  upwards  of  two  thousand  of  whom,  in  all  grades 
and  degrees,  —  from  the  court  physicians  and  leading  metropolitan 
surgeons,  who  are  conversant  with  the  wants  of  the  upper  ranks  of 
society,  to  the  humble  country  practitioner,  who  is  familiar  with 
the  requirements  of  the  artizan  in  his  workshop,  and  the  labourer 
in  the  field,  —  have  signed  the  following  certificate  :— 


PREFACE. 

"  We,  the  undersigned,  are  of  opinion  — 

"  1.  That  a  very  large  proportion  of  human  misery,  including 
poverty,  disease,  and  crime,  is  induced  by  the  use  of  Alcoholic  or 
fermented  liquors  as  beverages. 

"  2.  That  the  most  perfect  health  is  compatible  with  Total  Ab- 
stinence from  all  such  intoxicating  beverages,  whether  in  the  form 
of  ardent  spirits,  or  as  wine,  beer,  ale,  porter,  cider,  &c. ,  &c. 

"  8.  That  persons  accustomed  to  such  drinks  may,  with  perfect 
safety,  discontinue  them  entirely,  either  at  once,  or  gradually  after 
a  short  time. 

"  4.  That  Total  and  Universal  Abstinence  from  Alcoholic  bever- 
ages of  all  sorts  would  greatly  contribute  to  the  health,  the  pros- 
perity, the  morality,  and  the  happiness  of  the  human  race/' 

No  medical  man,  therefore,  can  any  longer  plead  the  singularity 
of  the  Total  Abstinence  creed,  as  an  excuse  for  his  non-recognition 
of  it;  and  although  a  certain  amount  of  moral  courage  may  be 
needed  for  the  advocacy  and  the  practice  of  it,  yet  this  is  an  attri- 
bute in  which  the  Author  cannot  for  a  moment  believe  his  brethren 
to  be  deficient.  Judging  from  his  own  experience,  indeed,  he  may 
say  that  he  has  found  much  less  difficulty  in  the  course  he  has 
taken,  than  he  anticipated  when  he  determined  on  it;  and  that  he 
has  met  with  a  cordial  recognition  of  its  propriety,  not  merely  on 
the  part  of  those  who  participated  in  his  opinions  but  did  not  feel 
called  upon  to  act  up  to  them  in  their  individual  cases,  but  also 
among  others  who  dissented  strongly  from  his  scientific  conclusions, 
and  who  consequently  had  no  more  sympathy  with  his  principles 
than  with  his  practice. 

London,  March,  1850. 


ON  ALCOHOLIC  LIQUOES. 


CHAPTER   I. 

WHAT  ARE  THE  EFFECTS,  CORPOREAL  AND  MENTAL,  OF  ALCO- 
HOLIC LIQUORS  ON  THE  HEALTHY  SYSTEM? 

1  IN  replying  to  this  question,  it  will  be  desirable  to  proceed  as 
systematically  as  possible ;  since  the  results  of  our  inquiries  upon 
the  several  points  which  it  involves,  will  have  to  form  the  ground- 
work of  our  further  investigations.  We  shall  commence,  therefore, 
by  examining  the  influence  of  Alcohol  upon  the  physical,  chemical, 
and  vital  properties  of  the  several  components  of  the  animal  fabric ; 
from  a  knowledge  of  which  we  shall  derive  important  assistance  in 
our  appreciation  of  its  effects  upon  the  human  system  as  a  whole. 

I.    INFLUENCE  OF  ALCOHOL    UPON    THE   PHYSICAL,  CHEMICAL,  AND 
VITAL   PROPERTIES    OF   THE    ANIMAL   TISSUES   AND    FLUIDS. 

2.  The  most  important  physical  change  which  the  contact  of 
Alcohol  effects  in  the  softer  animal  tissues,  is  that  of  corrugation  ;! 
which  change  is  entirely  due  to  the  difference  in  the  capillary  attrac- 
tion 2  of  the  tissue  for  alcohol  and  for  water  respectively.  If  animal 
membranes,  a  mass  of  flesh,  or  coagulated  fibrine3  be  placed  in  alco- 
hol in  a  fresh  state,  (in  which  they  are  thoroughly  charged  with 
water,)  there  are  formed,  at  all  points  where  water  and  alcohol  meet, 
mixtures  of  the  two;  and  as  the  animal  texture  absorbs  much  less 
of  an  alcoholic  mixture  than  of  pure  water,  a  larger  amount  of  water 
is  of  course  expelled,  than  of  alcohol  taken  up ;  and  the  first  resuh 

1  Corrugation — a  contracting  or  drawing  together,  so  as  to  form  wrinkles , 
1  uckering.  ' 

2  Capillary  attraction — the  disposition  of  minute,  hair-like  tubes  or  orifices 
to  draw  fluids  within  them. 

*  Fibrine — that  portion  of  the  blood  from  which  is  formed  the  chief  por- 
tion of  the  muscles  of  red-blooded  animals;  Coagulated — rendered  solid, 
curdled,  clotted. 

3  (25) 


26  EFFECTS     OF    ALCOHOL 

is  a  shrinking  of  the  animal  substance.  "Thus,"  says  Professor 
Liebig,  "9-17  grammes  of  bladder,  fresh,  that  is,  saturated  wiJi 
water,  (in  which  are  contained  6'95  grammes  of  water  and  2 -22  of 
dry  substance,)  when  placed  in  forty  cubic  centimetres  of  alcohol, 
weigh  at  the  end  of  twenty-four  hours  4*73  grammes,  and  have  con- 
sequently lost  4 -44  grammes.  For  one  volume  of  alcohol,  therefore, 
retained  by  the  bladder,  rather  more  than  three  volumes  of  water 
have  been  expelled  from  it."  ' 

3.  This  corrugating  effect  of  alcohol  will  be  usually  increased  by 
the  coagulating  influence  which  'it  will  exert  on  whatever  soluble 
albumen2  the    tissues    may  contain.     Both    these    results  will,   of 
course,  be  proportioned  in  their  degree  to  the  state  of  concentration 
of  the  alcohol;  but  some  such  physical  change  must  always  take 
place  in  the  walls  of  the  stomach,  whenever  alcoholic  fluids  are  in- 
troduced  into  it ;  and  in  the  soft  tissues  of  the  body  at  large,  wherever 
alcohol  has  found  its  way  into  the  current  of  the  circulation.     And 
that  such  is  actually  the  case,  is  proved  by  the  experiments  of  Dr. 
Percy,3  who  found  that  when  animals  are  poisoned  by  alcohol  intro- 
duced into  the  stomach,  the  coats  of  that  organ  become  so  thoroughly 
imbued  with  it,  throughout  their  whole  thickness,  that  no  washing 
or  maceration  can  remove  it.     He  found,  also,  that  the  tissues  remote 
from  the  stomach  become  impregnated  with  alcohol,  when  it  has 
passed  into  the  current  of  the  circulation ;  but  on  this  point  we  shall 
dwell  more  at  length  hereafter. — (§  17.) 

4.  The  physical  change  just  described  must  have  an  important 
influence  upon  the  chemical  relations  of  the  tissues;  since  it  is  im- 
possible that  alcohol  can  be  substituted,  in  however  small  a  propor- 
tion,   for   their   constituent    water,    without    producing   a    decided 
alteration    in    their   chemical    properties,   which    must   disturb   the 
normal   series    of  changes   involved  in  their  nutritive    operations 
Among  the  most  important  of  the  chemical  changes  which  alcohol 
has  the  power  of  effecting,  is  the  coagulation  of  soluble  Albumen  : 
and  although  it  will  rarely,  if  ever,  be  introduced  into  the  mass  of 
the  blood,  or  into  the  serous  fluids  of  the  tissues,  by  any  ordinary 
alcoholic  potations,  in  a  sufficiently  concentrated  state  to  effect  this, 
yet  we  should  anticipate  that  its  presence,  even  in  a  very  dilute  form, 
must  affect  the  chemical  relations  of  albumen,  and  can  scarcely  do 
otherwise  than  retard  that  peculiar  transformation  by  which  it  is 
converted  into  the  more  vitalized  substance,  Fibrine.     That  such  is 
actually  the  case  will  be  rendered  probable  by  the  considerations  to 
be  presently  adduced. 

5.  No  considerable  changes  of  a  physical  or  chemical  nature  can 

1  On  the  Motion  of  the  Animal  Juices,  p.  11. 

•  Albumen — an  animal  substance  similar  to  the  white  of  egg. 

*  Experimental  Inquiry  concerning  the  Presence  of  Alcohol  iu  the  Ventri- 
cles of  the  Brain,  p.  29. 


ON     THE     HEAL  THY     SYSTEM.  27 

take  place  in  any  of  the  animal  tissues,  without  disordering  their 
vital  properties  also;  and  we  have  now  to  inquire  into  the  mode  in 
which  these  properties  are  affected  by  the  contact  of  Alcoholic  liquids. 
In  the  first  place,  it  would  appear  that  the  solidifiability*  of  the  fibrine, 
which  is  its  special  vital  endowment,2  is  impaired  by  the  introduction 
of  alcohol  into  the  fluid  which  contains  it;  for  when  an  animal  has 
been  killed  by  the  injection  of  alcohol  into  the  blood-vessels,  the 
blood  often  remains  fluid  after  death,  or  coagulates  but  imperfectly. 
(See  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Percy,  op.  cit.~}  Now,  as  it  is  probable 
that  nearly  all  the  organized  tissues  are  developed  at  the  expense  of 
the  fibrine,  it  is  obvious  that  anything  which  impairs  its  organizi- 
bility3  must  have  an  injurious  influence  upon  the  general  nutritive 
operations ;  and  we  shall  hereafter  find  confirmation  of  this  inference 
in  that  peculiar  condition  of  the  system  which  results  from  excessive 
habitual  indulgence  in  alcoholic  potations,  and  of  which  the  imper- 
fect elaboration4  of  the  fibrine  is  one  of  the"  special  characteristics. 
(§  63.) — But,  secondly,  we  find  that  when  alcoholic  liquids  are  ap- 
plied to  living  tissues,  especially  to  the  vascular  surface  of  the  skin 
or  mucous  membrane,5  they  induce  redness,  heat,  and  pain,  indicating 
an  increased  determination  of  blood  to  the  part.  These  symptoms 
vary  in  intensity,  according  to  the  state  of  concentration  of  the 
liquid,  and  the  length  of  time  during  which  it  remains  in  contact 
with  the  surface ;  and  they  may  pass  on  from  this  condition  of  irri- 
tation to  one  of  actual  inflammation. 

6.  Our  best  knowledge,  however,  of  the  influence  of  Alcohol  upon 
the  vital  actions  of  the  animal  tissues,  is  derived  from  microscopic 
observations  upon  the  circulation  of  blood  in  the  web  of  the  frog's  foot. 
If  alcohol  be  applied  to  this  membrane  in  a  very  dilute  state,  its  first 
effect  is  to  quicken  the  movement  of  blood  through  the  vessels, 
which  are  at  the  same  time  rather  contracted  than  dilated.  But 
this  state  of  things  gradually  gives  place  to  the  opposite  j  for  alter  a 
time,  which  varies  with  the  degree  of  the  dilution  of  the  alcohol,  the 
circulation  becomes  retarded,  and  the  vessels  dilated ;  and  a  further 
time  elapses  before  the  original  condition  is  recovered.  If  the  alco- 
hol have  been  applied  at  first,  however,  in  a  less  dilute  form,  the 
first  stage  is  not  observed ;  but  a  retardation  of  the  flow  of  blood  is 
immediately  brought  about,  and  a  considerable  dilation  of  the  vessels 

1  Solidifiability — capacity  to  become  solid. 

aThe  coagulation  of  albumen  and  the  fibrillation  of  fibrine  are  two  entirely 
different  processes  ;  the  former  being  a  simply  physical  aggregation,  the 
latter  tending  to  produce  an  organized  tissue,  and  being  therefore  of  a  vital 
nature. 

3  Organizibilily — capacity  to  become  converted  into  and  form  part  of  A 
•iving  tissue. 

4  Elaboration — formation. 

•  Mucous  membrane  —  the  lining  membrane  of  the  nostrils,  mouth  and 
Arout,  stomach  and  intestines,  &c. 


28  EFFECTS     OP    ALCOHOL 

takes  place.  The  retardation  may  be  such  as  to  amount  in  some 
parts  to  a  complete  stagnation  ;  and  here  it  is  noticed  that  the  red 
corpuscles '  become  crowded  together,  and  that  their  normal  form  is 
lost;  their  colouring  matter  also  being  diffused  through  the  liquor 
sanguinis.2  Around  the  parts  in  which  the  stagnation  is  witnessed 
however,  there  is  generally  a  border,  in  which  the  blood  flows  with 
increased  rapidity.  Now  this  perverted  state  may  gradually  give 
place  to  the  normal  condition,3  if  the  stimulus  be  only  applied  for  a 
short  time;  the  circulation  being  restored  where  it  was  deficient,  and 
the  vessels  gradually  contracting  to  their  proper  size.  But  if  the 
contact  of  concentrated  alcohol  be  prolonged,  it  becomes  obvious  that 
the  tissue  has  been  killed;  for  the  circulation  is  never  re-established 
in  it,  and  it  is  at  last  separated  by  gangrene.4  We  rarely  witness, 
in  cold-blooded  animals,  those  consequences  of  the  application  of  irri- 
tants which  properly  constitute  the  inflammatory  process ;  but  this 
process  is  liable  to  be  excited  in  man,  and  in  warm-blooded  animals, 
by  the  contact  of  alcoholic  fluids  with  living  tissues,  if*  the  contact  be 
sufficiently  prolonged,  and  the  alcohol  sufficiently  concentrated. 

7.  Now  the  inference  to  be  drawn  from  the  preceding  details  is 
these ; — that  Alcohol,  when  applied  to  the  living  tissues  in  a  suffi- 
ciently dilute  form,  exalts  for  a  time  their  vital  activity;  but  that 
this  exaltation  is  temporary  only,  and  is  followed  by  a  corresponding 
depression.  And  further,  that  when  the  alcohol  is  in  a  state  of  suf- 
ficient concentration  to  act  more  potentially,5  its  exhausting  or  de- 
pressing effect  is  manifested,  without  any  previous  stage  of  excite- 
ment. This  inference  we  shall  hereafter  find  to  be  in  precise  accord- 
ance with  that  to  which  we  shall  be  conducted  by  observation  of  the 
effects  of  alcohol  upon  the  system  at  large;  and  we  are  justified, 
therefore,  in  regarding  alcohol  as  belonging  to  the  class  of  stimu- 
lants, and  as  subject  to  the  laws  of  their  operation.  It  has  been 
affirmed  by  some  that  alcohol  in  small  doses  is  tonic;6  but  of  this 
there  is  no  adequate  proof.  The  property  of  tonic  remedies  is  to 
increase  the  vital  contractility  of  the  animal  solids  in  general,  but- 
more  especially  that  of  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels.  Now  although 
some  slight  effect  of  this  kind  is  at  first  manifested,  after  the  appli- 
cation of  very  dilute  alcohol  to  a  living  membrane,  yet  it  is  very  transi- 
tory, and  is  succeeded  by  a  much  longer  period  of  diminution  of  the 
tonic  contractility  of  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels.  And  we  shall 

1  Red  corpuscles — that  portion  of  the  blood  upon  which  its  colour  depends. 
3  Liquor  sanguinis — the  fluid  portion  of  the  blood  in  which  the  red  corpus- 
cles float. 

3  Normal  condition — appropriate,  usual,  healthy  condition. 

4  Gangrene — death  and  decomposition  of  the  tissue;  mortification. 

*  Potentially-  -powerfully. 

•  Tonic — that  which  increases  permanently  the  activity  of  the  functions 
of  life. 


ON     THE     HEALTHY     SYSTEM.  29 

h<  cafter  see  that  the  supposed  tonic  properties  of  alcohol  in  small 
Jujes,  (especially  in  the  form  of  wine  or  malt  liquor,)  are  really  but 
a  manifestation  of  its  stimulant  effects. 

8.  Various  other  experiments  confirm  this  view  of  the  effects  of 
Alconol  on  the  animal  tissues;  and  those  of  Humboldt  are  particu- 
larly valuable,  as  regards  its  special  capability  of  producing  a  tem- 
porary excitement  of  nervous  power.    "  When  the  crural  nerve/'  '  he 
says,  '•  01  a  full-grown  and  lively  frog  was  immersed  in  alcohol,  if 
the   leg  was  already  exhausted  by  galvanization,  the  alcohol  evi- 
dently increased  its  excitability ;  and  this  increase  was  lasting  (i.  e. 
for  a  time),  when  it  was  quickly  removed  from  the  stimulating  fluid. 
If  the  nerve  was  left  in  it  for  some  time,  its  excitability  was  com- 
pletely exhausted.     Its  application  exhausted  instantaneously  the 
excitability  of  young  animals  —  birds,  worms,  and  insects.     If  the 
tail  of  an  earth-worm  or  leech  be  dipped  for  QiAy  four  seconds  in 
alcohol,  it  becomes  stiff  and  excitable  as  far  as  it  is  immersed ;  and 
although  in  frogs  and  puppies  this  state  of  rigidity  could  sometimes 
be  removed,  in  these  animals  it  never  could."  2 

9.  There  are  some  peculiar  effects  of  Alcohol  upon  the  blood, 
besides  its  influence  on  the  coagulability  of  the  fibrine,  of  which  it 
is  proper  that  special  mention  should  be  made.     When  alcohol  is 
mingled  with  fresh  arterial  blood,  it  darkens  its  colour,  so  as  to  give 
it  more  or  less  of  the  venous  aspect.3 — (§  118.)     And  when  this 
admixture  is  made  under  the  microscope,  it  is  perceived  that  the  red 
corpuscles  shrink,  and  that  a  considerable  part  of  their  contents 
becomes  mingled  with  the  liquor  sanguinis.     Now,  although  the 
peculiar  functions  of  the  red  corpuscles  have  not  yet  been  precisely 
determined  by  physiologists,  there  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  they 
are  among  the  most  important  constituents  of  the  blood ;  and  there 
is  strong  reason  to  believe  that  they  are  subservient  on  the  one  hand 
to  the  respiratory  function,  and  on  the  other,  either  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, to  the  elaboration  of  the  plasma  or  organizable  material  of 
the  blood.     It  is  highly  improbable,  then,  that  any  considerable 
effect  can  be  produced  upon  them,  without  seriously  impairing  the 
processes  of  aeration  and  nutrition  ;  both  of  which,  as  we  shall  here- 
after see,  are  prejudicially  influenced  in  other  ways,  by  the  presence 
of  alcohol  in  the  blood. 

Having  thus  considered  the  influence  of  Alcohol  upon  the  pro- 
perties and  actions  of  the  component  tissues  of  the  animal  fabric, 
we  shall  inquire  into  its  effects  upon  the  living  system  as  a  whole. 

1  Crural  nerve.  —  norve  of  the  leg. 

2  Annals  of  Medicine,  17'.;9,  p.  265. 

3  I'ctious  aspect — the  blood  in  the  nrtcries  is  of  a  bright  vermilion  ;  that  in 
the  veins,  of  a  dark  purple  hue  or  aspect. 

3* 


30  EFFECTS     OF    ALCOHOL 


II.    IMMEDIATE    CONSEQUENCES   OF   THE   EXCESSIVE    USE    OP 
ALCOHOLIC   LIQUORS   ON    THE   GENERAL   SYSTEM. 

Phenomena  of  Alcoholic  Intoxication. 

10.  The  term  Intoxication  is  sometimes  employed  in  this  coun* 
try  to  designate  that  series  of  phenomena  which  results  from  the 
action  of  all  such  poisons  as  first  produce  stimulation,  and  then  nar- 
cotism : !  of  these,  however,  Alcohol  is  the  type ;  and   the  term  is 
commonly  applied  to  alcoholic  intoxication  alone.     It  is  worthy  of 
notice,  however,  that  the  designation  is  now  given  by  French  wri- 
ters to  the  series  of  remote  or  constitutional  effects  consequent  upon 
tho  introduction  of  any  poisonous  agent  into  the  blood;  thus  we 
meet  with  the  terms  "arsenical  intoxication/7  "iodine  intoxication," 
and  even  "  purulent  intoxication."    In  fact,  it  is  there  considered  an 
equivalent  (as  its  etymology  denotes)  of  our  word  poisoning ;  ana 
the  fact  that  such  a  term  should  be  in  common  use  in  this  country, 
to  designate   the   ordinary  results  of  the  ingestion2  of  alcoholic 
liquors,  is  not  without  its  significance ;  for,  if  the  classical  term 
"  intoxication "   be  habitually  employed  as  the  equivalent  of  the 
Saxon  "  drunkenness,"  we  are  justified  in  turning  that  classical  term, 
into  English  again,  and  in  asserting  that  the  condition  of  drunken* 
ness,  in  all  its  stages,  is  one  of  poisoning.     That  such  is  indeed  the 
case,  will  become  obvious  from  an  examination  of  its  symptoms,  and 
from  a  comparison  of  them  with  those  of  the  cases  in  which  a  fatal 
result  has  supervened  upon  excessive  indulgence  in  alcoholic  liquors. 
To  such  an  examination  we  shall  now  proceed ',  first,  detailing  the 
symptoms  of  the  slighter  forms  of  intoxication;  then,  those  of  the 
deeper ;  and,  lastly,   those  of   the  severest  cases ;  and  afterwards 
inquiring  into  the  pathological3  state  from  which  those  symptoms 
proceed,  and  the  modus  operand)'4  of  the  agent  that  has  produced  it. 

11.  Among  the  first  effects  of  the  ingestion  of  Alcoholic  liquors, 
in  sufficient  amount  to  produce  their  characteristic  influence,  are,  in 
most  persons,  an  increase  in  the  force  and  rapidity  of  the  heart's 
contractions ;  producing  a  full,  frequent,  and  strong  pulse.     With 
this,  there  seems  to  be  a  general  exaltation  of  the  Organic  functions ; 
the  appetite  and  the  digestive  power  being  increased,  and  the  secre- 
tions augmented,  especially  those  of  the  skin  and  kidneys.     But  it 
is  obvious  that  the  encephalic 5  centres  of  the  nervous  system  are 
especially  acted  on  by  the  stimulus,  for  we  observe  all  the  manifesta- 

Narcotism — stupor,  insensibility. 

Ingestion — taking  into  the  stomach. 

Pathological — diseased  condition. 

Modus  operandi — the  manner  in  which  it  acts.. 

Encephalic — within  the  head ;  the  brain 


ON     THE     HEALTHY     SYSTEM.  3l 

lions  of  an  excited  action  in  them,  such  as  talkativeness,  rapidity 
and  variety  of  thought,  exhilaration  of  the  spirits,  animation  of  the 
features  and  gestures,  flushed  countenance,  and  suffusion  of  the 
eyes.  During  slight  intoxication,  the  prevailing  dispositions  and 
pursuits  are  often  made  manifest ;  and  hence  the  saying,  "  In  vino 
veritas.1  The  irritable  and  ill-tempered  become  quarrelsome;  the 
weak  and  silly  are  boisterous  with  laughter  and  mirth,  and  profuse 
in  offers  of  service ;  and  the  sad  and  hypochondriacal  readily  burst  into 
tears,  and  dwell  on  mournful  topics.  It  sometimes  happens,  however, 
that  men  habitually  melancholy  become  highly  mirthful,  when  they 
have  drunk  enough  to  excite  them ;  but  this  seems  rather  to  be  the 
case  when  the  melancholy  results  from  external  depressing  influences, 
than  when  it  is  constitutional ;  and  hence  it  is  that  too  many  persons 
in  circumstances  of  distress  or  difficulty  have  recourse  to  the  bottle  for 
temporary  solace  from  their  cares.  If  no  more  liquor  be  taken  than 
is  sufficient  to  produce  this  condition,  it  gradually  subsides,  and  is 
followed  by  a  state  of  the  opposite  character;  the  appetite,  the 
digestive  power,  and  the  organic  functions  in  general,  being  lowered 
in  activity,  the  skin  dry,  the  secretions  diminished,  the  spirits  de- 
pressed, and  the  power  of  mental  exertion  for  a  time  impaired.  For 
this  condition,  sleep,  and  abstinence  (not  merely  from  a  renewal  of 
the  stimulus,  but  from  more  food  than  the  stomach  really  demands), 
are  the  most  effectual  remedies. 

12.  The  state  of  mental  excitement  just  described,  is  very  similar 
to  the  incipient  stage  of  Phrenitis 2  or  Mania.     It  is  not  a  uniform 
exallation  of  the  mental  powers,  but  in  some  degree  a  perversion 
of  them  ;  for  that  voluntary  control  over  the  current  of  thought, 
which  is  the  distinguishing  character  of  the  sane  mind  of  Man,  is 
considerably  weakened,  so  that  the  heightened  imagination  and  en- 
livened fancy  have  more  unrestricted  exercise ;  and  whilst  ideas  and 
images  succeed  each  other  in  the  mind  with  marvellous  readiness, 
no  single  train  of  thought  can  be  carried  out  with  the  same  con- 
tinuity as  in  the  state  of  perfect  sobriety.     This  weakening  of  the 
voluntary  control  over  the  mental  operations  must  be  regarded,  then, 
as  an  incipient  stage  of  Insanity. 

13.  If  the  first  dose  of  Alcohol  be  such  as  to  produce  more  potent 
effects,  or  if  (as  in  ordinary  intoxication)  it  be  renewed  after  the 
first  effects  have  been  already  manifested,  the  second  stage  is  induced, 
in  which  not  merely  the  intellectual  but  the  sensorial  apparatus3  is 
disturbed.     The  voluntary  control  over  the  direction  of  the  thoughts 
is  completely  lost,  and  the  excitement  has  more  the  character  of 

1  In  vino  veritas — there  is  truth  in  wine.     The  influence  of  wine  is  to 
develop  the  true  character  of  the  individual. 

2  P/irenitis — inflammation  of  the  brain. 

3  Scnsorial  apparatus — that  portion  of  the  nervous  system  upon  which  cur 
sensations,  feelings,  perceptions,  depend. 


32  EFFECTS     OF     ALCOHOL 

delirium  ; — the  ideas  becoming  confused,  the  reasoning  powers  dis« 
ordered,  and  hallucinations  '  sometimes  presenting  themselves.  At 
the  same  time,  vertigo,  double  vision,  tinnitus  aurium,2  and  various 
other  sensory  illusions  occur ;  the  muscular  movements  become 
tremulous  and  unsteady,  the  voice  thick,  the  eyes  vacant,  and  the 
face  commonly  pale.  Vomiting  frequently  occurs  in  this  state;  and 
when  it  does,  the  consecutive  stage  is  usually  either  cut  short,  or  is 
abated  in  intensity.  The  poisonous  effects  may  proceed  no  further  than 
this ;  the  drunkard  falling  into  a  heavy  sleep,  from  which  he  awakes 
to  feel  the  consequences  of  his  transgression.  These  consequences 
differ  in  some  degree  with  the  previous  habits.  Those  unaccustomed 
to  such  excesses  usually  suffer  from  head-ache  and  feverishness,  with 
a  dry  and  furred  tongue,  complete  anorexia3  with  a  particular 
loathing  for  alcoholic  drinks,  inability  for  mental  or  bodily  exertion, 
and  depression  of  spirits;  and  only  recover  from  this  condition  after 
prolonged  repose  and  abstinence.  On  the  other  hand,  the  man  to 
whom  it  is  habitual,  although  his  general  condition  is  nearly  the 
same,  craves  for  a  further  dose  of  his  stimulant;  and  when  he  has 
obtained  it,  he  is  able  to  take  food  and  to  proceed  with  his  ordinary 
avocations. 

14.  In  the  third  and  most  profound  stage  of  intoxication,  there 
is  extreme  diminution  or  entire  suspension  of  cerebral  and  sensorial 
power ;'  a  state  of  coma z  supervening  upon  that  last  described.  This 
state  may  vary  in  intensity,  however,  between  one  of  deep  ordinary 
sleep,  from  which  the  individual  can  be  so  far  aroused  as  to  give 
manifestations  of  sensibility,  and  a  torpor  as  profound  as  that  of 
apoplexy ;  and,  when  the  latter  manifests  itself,  it  is  an  indication 
of  danger,  especially  when  the  respiratory  movements  are  impeded. 
According  to  the  observations  of  Dr.  Ogston,*  the  face  is  sometimes 
pale,  sometimes  flushed ;  the  eyes  vacant  and  suffused,  sometimes 
glazed;  the  pupils  dilated,  and  contracting  very  imperfectly,  or  not 
at  all,  to  light :  the  temperature  of  the  head  is  generally  above  the 
natural  standard,  but  that  of  the  extremities  and  of  the  surface  is 
in  general  considerably  lowered,  or  but  little  affected  in  milder  cases  : 
the  pulse,  which  was  at  first  quick  and  excited,  becomes  feeble,  small, 
and  ultimately  slow,  or  even  entirely  wanting  at  the  wrist,  according 
to  the  intensity  of  the  intoxication ;  the  respiratory  movements  are 
less  frequent  than  usual,  and  are  imperfectly  performed,  exhibiting, 
in  the  severest  cases,  the  convulsive  character  of  those  of  persons 

'  Hallucinations — errors  of  the  senses,  in  which  objects  or  impressions 
are  supposed  to  be  seen,  felt,  or  heard,  that  are  not  in  fact  present. 
a  Tinnitus  aurium — a  ringing  in  the  ears. 
3  Anorexia — a  want  or  loss  of  appetite ;  aversion  from  food. 

*  Cerebral  and  sensorial — relating  to  the  brain  or  mind  and  senses. 

*  Coma — a  state  of  deep  sleep. 

Edinburgh  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  vol.  xl. 


ON     THE     HEALTHY     SYSTEM.  S3 

suffering  from  asphyxia.1  Strabismus,2  general  tetanic  convulsions,8 
or  spasms  of  particular  parts,  sometimes  supervene  in  the  more  ad- 
vanced states.  When  a  fatal  termination  occurs,  it  is  usually  attri- 
butable, as  in  apoplexy,  to  the  imperfect  aeration  of  the  blood  ;  the 
face  becoming  livid  and  turnid,  the  eyes  prominent,  and  the  lips 
blue.  In  some  instances,  the  complete  prostration  of  the  cerebral 
and  sensorial  powers  comes  on  suddenly,  without  any  previous  stage 
of  excitement;  and  in  these  cases,  it  is  noticed  that  the  pupil  is 
usually  contracted. 

15.  The  unfavourable  indications,  in  case  of  poisoning  by  large 
doses  of  Alcohol,  are  profoundness  of  insensibility,  insufficiency  of 
respiratory  movement,  with  consequent  failure  of  circulation  and 
imperfect  aeration4  of  blood,  the  pupils  either  much  dilated  or  con- 
tracted, coldness  of  the  extremities,  and  the  occurrence  of  strabis- 
mus or  tetanic  spasms.  When  these  symptoms  do  not  appear,  the 
ill  effects  pass  off,  in  a  great  measure,  within  four-and-twenty  hours; 
but  it  is  usually  much  longer  before  the  various  functions  regain 
their  healthy  tone. 

10.  In  fatal  cases,5  the  appearances  usually  resemble,  more  or 
less  closely,  those  of  Asphyxia;  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  the 
pulmonary  arteries,  and  the  systemic  veins6  being  loaded  with  blood  ; 
whilst  the  left  cavities  and  the  arterial  system  are  comparatively 
empty,  the  blood  which  they  do  contain  being  dark.  The  sinuses 
and  the  whole  venous  system  of  the  brain  are  turgid  with  dark 
blood ;  arid  serous  effusion7  is  usually  found  within  the  ventricles,8  or 
beneath  the  arachnoid  ;9  this,  however,  being  variable  in  its  amount. 
The  substance  of  the  brain  is  unusually  white  and  firm,  as  if  it  had 
lain  in  ?.lcohol  for  an  hour  or  two.  The  liver,  spleen,  and  kidneys 
are  loaded  with  venous  blood;  and  the  air-passages  of  the  lungs 
contain  more  or  less  of  frothy  mucus.  The  stomach  usually  exhibits 
but  little  departure  from  its  normal  condition,  except  in  cases  where 
drunkenness  has  been  habitual,  or  where  the  fatal  dose  has  been 
taken  in  a  very  concentrated  form.  In  the  former  case,  the  mucous 

1  Asphyxia  —  interruption  of  respiration  or  the  breathing  function  -  - 
strangulation,  suffocation. 
•a  Strabismus  —  squinting. 

3  Tetanic  convulsions  —  convulsions  in  which  the  muscles  are  permanently 
extended  or  contracted ;.  continued  spasms. 

4  Aeration  —  change  of  the  blood  by  the  action  of  the  air  in  the  lungs 

*  See  Dr.  Ogston,  loc.  cit. ;  and.  Dr.  Peters  in  New  York,  Journal  of  Me- 
dicine, vol.  iii.  no.  9. 

6  Pulmonary  arteries  and  systemic  veins  —  vessels  which  return  the  blood, 
after  it  has  circulated  through  the  body,  to  the  lungs,  to  be  again  aerated. 

1  Serous  effusion  —  a  pouring  out  or  escape  of  the  watery  portion  of  the 
blood. 

8  Ventricles  —  cavities  within  the  brain. 

'  Arachnoid  —  one  of  the  membranes  enveloping  the  brain. 


H4  EFFECTSOFALCOHOL 

eoat1  is  usually  found  thicker,  softer,  and  more  vascular  than  usual ; 
this  change  sometimes  extending  even  throughout  the  entire  length 
of  the  small  intestines.  In  rarer  instances,  the  coats  of  the  stomach 
are  remarkably  thickened  and  hardened.  Where  death  results  from 
a  very  concentrated  dose,  the  intense  injection,  almost  amounting  to 
black  discolouration,  of  a  powerful  irritant  poison,  is  met  with.  This, 
however,  has  been  rather  noticed  in  experiments  on  animals,  into 
whose  stomachs  rectified  alcohol  had  been  injected,  than  in  human 
subjects,  by  whom  alcohol  is  very  rarely  taken  in  such  a  form.  Of 
the  condition  of  the  liver  and  kidneys  found  in  habitual  drunkards, 
an  account  will  be  given  hereafter.  The  blood  in  most  cases  of 
alcoholic  poisoning,  according  to  the  observations  of  Dr.  Ogston 
upon  drunkards,  and  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Percy  upon  animals, 
is  either  fluid  or  imperfectly  coagulated. 

Pathology  of  Alcoholic  Intoxication. 

17.  The  pathological  character  of  intoxication  by  Alcohol,  and 
the  modus  operandi  of  the  poison,  have  been  fully  made  out  from 
the  experiments  and  observations  just  referred  to;  and  it  is  very 
important  for  our  future  inquiries,  that  the  results  of  these  should 
be  rightly  understood.  That  alcoholic  liquors,  when  introduced  into 
the  stomach,  should  undergo  rapid  absorption  into  the  sanguiferous 
system,2  is  precisely  what  might  be  anticipated  from  our  knowledge 
of  the  conditions  under  which  that  absorption  takes  place ;  and  there 
is  ample  evidence  that  such  is  really  the  case.  Thus  Dr.  Percy 
was  always  able  to  detect  the  alcohol  in  the  blood  of  the  animals 
which  he  had  poisoned  by  injecting  alcohol  into  their  stomachs, 
provided  they  did  not  live  too  long  afterwards;  and  MM.  Bouchardat 
and  Sandras  have  more  recently  determined  its  presence  in  the  blood 
of  the  gastric  veins.3  The  rapidity  with  which  this  absorption  takes 
place  may  be  judged  of  by  the  fact  that,  in  one  of  Dr.  Percy's  ex- 
periments, in  which  the  animal  fell  lifeless  to  the  ground  immedi- 
ately that  the  injection  of  the  alcohol  into  the  stomach  was  com- 
pleted (the  respiratory  movements  and  pulsations  of  the  heart  en- 
tirely ceasing  within  two  minutes),  the  stomach  was  found  nearly 
void,  whilst  the  blood  was  strongly  impregnated  with  alcohol.4 
Hence,  it  may  reasonably  be  inferred,  that  in  all  cases  of  ordinary 
intoxication,  and  in  the  greater  number  of  cases  of  death  from  the 
introduction  of  alcohol  into  the  stomach,  the  effects  are  produced  by 
the  passage  of  the  alcohol  into  the  current  of  the  circulation,  so  as 
to  exert  a  direct  action  on  the  nervous  centres.  And  this  influence 
IP  confirmed  by  the  fact  thac  Dr.  Percy  has  demonstrated  its  pre- 

1  Mucous  coat  —  inner  or  lining  coat  of  the  stomach. 

"  Sanguiferous  system  —  The  blood-vessels,  veins  and  arteries. 

1  Gastric  veins  —  veins  of  the  stomach. 

4  Op.  cit.  D.  61. 


ON     THE     HEALTHY     SYSTEM.  35 

Bence,  in  considerable  amount,  in  the  substance  of  the  brain  ;  thus 
confirming  Dr.  Ogston's  assertion  (which  had  been  called  in  ques- 
tion by  Dr.  Christison  and  others)  as  to  its  presence  in  the  fluid 
effused  in  the  ventricles  of  the  brain. 

18.  In  some  of  the  experiments  on  Alcoholic  poisoning,  how- 
ever, made  by  Dr.  Christison  and  others,  it  would  appear  as  if  the 
total  loss  of  insensibility  and  voluntary  power  so  instantaneously  fol- 
lowed the  introduction  of  the  poison  into  the  stomach — especially 
when  it  was  introduced  in  a  concentrated  form — as  not  to  admit  the 
idea  that  absorption  could  have  taken  place  to  a  sufficient  extent  for 
the  production  of  the  effect  by  the  direct  action  of  the  poison  on  the 
nervous  centres.     In  such  instances,  the  fatal  result  would  seem  rather 
due  to  the  violent  impression  made  upon  the  gastric  nerves,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  sympathetic  system  j  whereby  the  heart's  action 
is  suspended,  and  death  takes  place  by  syncope '  rather  than  asphyxia.2 
This  is  the  case  with  many  other  poisons,  when  administered  in 
large  quantity  and  in  concentrated  form,  especially  with  such  as 
exert  a  chemical  action  upon  the  animal  tissues;  the  effect  which 
they  produce  (through  the  nervous  system)  upon  the  heart,  closely 
resembling  that  of  blows  upon  the  epigastrium,3  or  extensive  burns 
of  the  cutaneous  surface.4     Now  as  the  concentration  of  the  alcohol 
will,  on  the  one  hand,  favour  its  physical  and  chemical  action  upon 
the  tissues ;  whilst  on  the  other  i*  will  be  unfavourable  to  absorp- 
tion, which  takes  place  much  more  readily  when  it  is  diluted  with 
water ;  we  are  enabled  readily  to  account  for  this  difference  in  its 
modus  operandi. 

19.  The  general  stimulant  action,  which  is  for  a  time  exerted  by 
alcohol  introduced  in  small  quantities,  and  diluted  by  admixture 
with  the  general  mass  of  the  blood,  is  easily  explained  upon  the 
basis  of  the  observations  first  detailed  (§  17) ;  but  its  special  power 
of  exciting  the  nervous  centres5  to  augmented  activity,  can  only  be 
accounted  for  by  the  idea  of  some  special  relation  between  alcohol 
and  nervous  matter.     And  this  idea  is  fully  borne  out  by  the  fact, 
that  Dr.  Percy  found  alcohol  to  exist  in  the  substance  of  the  brains 
of  the  dogs  poisoned  by  it,  in  considerably  greater  proportion  than 
in  an  equivalent  quantity  of  blood.     (^Op.  cit.  p.  103.) — This  fact 
is  one  of  fundamental  importance,  as  showing  us  how  directly  and 
immediately  the  whole  nutrition  and  vital  activity  of  the  Nervous 
System  must  be  affected  by  the  presence  of  Alcohol  in  the  blood ; 
the  alcohol  being  thus  specially  drawn  out  of  the  circulating  current 

1  Syncope  —  fainting ;  cessation  of  the  heart's  action. 
3  Asphyxia — stoppage  of  respiration ;  cessation  of  the  function  of  the 
lungs. 

3  Epigastrium  —  region  of  the  stomach. 

4  Cutaneous  surface —  the  skin. 

Nervous  centres  —  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow. 


36  EFFECTS    OF    ALCOHOL 

by  the  norvous  matter,  and  incorporated  with  its  substance,  in  such 
a  manner  as  even  to  change  (when  in  sufficient  amount)  its  physical 
as  well  as  its  chemical  properties.  It  is  important  also  to  observe, 
that  this  affinity  is  obviously  such,  as  will  occasion  the  continual 
presence  of  alcohol  in  the  blood,  even  in  very  minute  proportion,  to 
modify  the  nutrition  of  the  nervous  substance  more  than  that  of  any 
other  tissue ;  for  the  alcohol  will  seek  out  (as  it  were)  the  nervous 
matter,  and  will  fasten  itself  upon  it, — just  as  we  see  that  other 
poisons,  whose  results  become  more  obvious  to  our  senses,  (although 
the  poisons  themselves  may  exist  in  such  minute  amount  as  not  to 
be  detectible  by  the  most  refined  analysis,)  will  localize  themselves 
in  particular  organs,  or  even  in  particular  spots  of  the  same  organ.1 
20.  The  selective  power  of  Alcohol  appears  to  lead  it  in  the  first 
instance  to  attack  the  Cerebrum,2  the  intellectual  powers  being 
affected  before  any  disorder  of  sensation  or  motion  manifests  itself; 
and  to  this  it  seems  to  be  limited  in  what  has  been  here  described  as 
the  first  stage  of  intoxication.  But  with  the  more  complete  perver- 
sion of  the  intellectual  powers,  which  characterises  the  second  stage, 
we  have  also  a  disturbed  function  of  the  Sensory  Ganglia?  upon 
which  the  cerebral  hemispheres  4  are  superposed ;  this  disturbance 
being  indicated  by  the  disorders  of  sensation,  and  also  by  the  want 
of  that  control  over  the  muscular  movements  which  require  sensa- 
tion for  their  guidance.  In  th«  third  stage,  the  functions  of  the 
Cerebrum  and  Sensory  Ganglia  appear  to  be  completely  suspended ; 
and  those  of  the  Medulla  Oblongata^  and  Spinal  Cord6  now  begin 
to  be  affected,  as  we  see  to  be  indicated  by  the  difficulty  of  respira- 
tion, the  strabismus,  the  dilated  pupil,  and  the  tetanic  spasms.  As 
already  stated,  the  admixture  of  alcohol  with  the  blood  has  a  ten- 
dency to  give  a  venous  character  even  to  that  of  the  arteries ;  and 
when  this  tendency  is  augmented  by  imperfect  respiration,  the  blood 
will  become  more  and  more  venous,  until  its  influence  upon  the 
medulla  oblongata  is  so  directly  poisonous,  that  its  functions  are 
completely  suspended,  the  respiratory  movements  are  brought  to  a 
stand,  and  death  takes  place  by  Asphyxia,  precisely  as  in  narcotic 
poisoning  by  other  substances. 
,  21.  This  tendency,  however,  is  more  completely  antagonized  by 

1  See  for  illustrations  of  this  doctrine,  now  generally  admitted  by  physi- 
ologists, Dr.  W.  Budd's   paper  on   Symmetrical   Diseases,   in   Med.    Chir. 
Trans.,  vol.  xxv. ;  and  Mr.  Paget's  Lectures  on  Nutrition,  in  Medical  Ga- 
zette, 1847. 

2  Cerebrum  —  the  upper  and  anterior  portion  of  the  brain. 

3  Sensory  ganglia  —  portions  of  the  nervous  system  from  which  the  nerves 
of  sensation  proceed. 

4  Cerebral  hemispheres  —  the  two  lateral  portions  of  the  brain. 

4  Medulla  oblongata  —  the   commencement  of  the   spinal  marrow  at  the 
basis  of  the  brain  within  the  scull. 
•  Spinal  cord  —  the  spinal  marrow. 


ON     THE    HEALTHY    SYSTEM.  37 

{lie  efforts  which  the  system  makes  (so  to  speak)  to  get  rid  of  the 
poison  ;  which  efforts,  if  successful,  will  carry  it  off  in  the  course  of 
a  few  hours,  leaving  nothing  behind  it  but  the  disordered  condition 
which  it  has  produced.  We  have  seen  that  an  increased  secretion  ! 
takes  place  by  the  kidneys  and  skin  ;  and  the  former  of  these  is 
certainly  a  means  of  eliminating 2  the  alcohol,  which  has  been  de- 
tected in  the  urine  by  Dr.  Percy,  (op.  cit.,  p.  104,) —  contrary  to 
the  statements  of  many  physiologists,  who  have  denied  that  it  ever 
finds  its  way  into  that  secretion.  It  is  indeed  a  general  rule,  that 
when  a  medicinal  or  toxic3  agent  produces  a  special  determination 
to  some  particular  gland,  that  determination  is  the  means  of  elimi- 
nating it  from  the  blood ;  as  is  seen  in  the  diuretic  action  of  the 
neutral  salts.  And  it  would  not  seem  improbable,  therefore,  that 
the  skin  also  should  be  concerned  in  the  exhalation 4  of  the  alcohol;5 
more  especially  since  an  alcoholic  odour  may  often  be  observed,  not 
merely  in  the  breath,  but  proceeding  from  the  person  generally. 
Dr.  Percy  has  also  shown,  that  alcohol  may  be  detected  in  the  bile 
of  animals  poisoned  by  it.  The  alcoholic  odour  of  the  breath  is  a 
sufficient  indication  that  alcoholic  vapour  is  exhaled  from  the  lungs 
in  the  act  of  respiration ; — but  the  quantity  of  this  is  probably  small 
in  comparison  with  that  which  is  carried  off  in  another  way,  namely, 
by  the  combustive  process,  which  takes  place  in  the  blood  at  the 
expense  of  the  oxygen  it  contains,  and  which  converts  the  alcohol 
into  carbonic  acid  and  water;  both  of  which  are  set  free  by  exhala- 
tion from  the  lungs.  The  readiness  with  which  alcohol  is  thus  oxi- 
dized, in  fact,  is  probably  one  cause  of  its  influence  in  giving  a  venous 
aspect  to  arterial  blood;  since  it  will  withdraw  the  oxygen  from 
other  substances,  which  are  waiting  to  be  eliminated  by  the  combus- 
tive process,  and  the  accumulation  of  which  will  deteriorate  the  cha- 
racter of  the  fluid. 

22.  By  all  these  channels,  then,  the  Alcohol  is  rapidly  carried 
out  of  the  system ;  so  that  recovery  may  be  certainly  expected,  if 
life  can  be  sufficiently  prolonged  by  warmth  to  the  surface,  by  arti- 
ficial respiration,  by  the  administration  of  ammonia,6  and  by  other 
such  measures.  The  depressing  character  of  the  influence  of  alco- 
hol, when  carried  to  this  extent,  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  fact 

1  Increased  secretion  by  the  kidneys  and  skin  —  increases  separation  from 
the  blood  of  urine  and  sweat. 
a  Eliminating  —  separating,  removing. 
3  Toxic  —  poisonous. 

*  Exhalation  —  giving  out  in  the  form  of  a  fine  vapour. 

*  Dr.  Macnish  states,  (Anatomy  of  Drunkenness,  p.  175),  that  he  has 
met  with  two  instances,  the  one  in  a  Claret,  the  other  in  a  Port  drinker, 
in  which  the  cutaneous  perspiration  after  a  debauch  had  the  hue  of  the 
liquor  they  had  drunk. 

*  Ammonia  —  volatile  alkali,  hartshorne. 

4 


58  EFFECTSOFALCOHOL 

that  copious  depletion  '  cannot  be  borne ;  and  it  is  on  this  account 
very  important  to  distinguish  between  alcoholic  poisoning  and  con- 
gestive apoplexy,  for  which  it  may  be  easily  mistaken  if  its  cause  be 
not  known. 

It  would  be  easy  to  extend  the  foregoing  description  by  a  more 
particular  account  of  the  varieties  of  the  modus  operand i2  of  Alco- 
hol presented  by  different  individuals;  but  it  has  not  been  thought 
necessary  to  do  so,  the  great  general  facts  presented  by  its  ordinary 
operation  being  those  of  prime  importance  in  our  further  investiga- 
tions.— We  have  now  to  inquire  into  the  various  forms  of  disease, 
the  production  of  which  may  be  assigned,  with  more  or  less  proba- 
bility, to  the  prolonged  or  repeated  action  of  alcohol  on  the  human 
system. 

III.    REMOTE   CONSEQUENCES   OF   THE   EXCESSIVE   USE   OF  ALCO- 
HOLIC  LIQUORS. 

Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System. 

23.  From  the  peculiar  tendency  which  the  Alcohol  in  the  blood 
has  to  disorder  the  functions  of  the  Nervous  System,  it  might  be 
expected  that  the  habitual  ingestion  of  alcoholic  liquors  in  excess, 
would  bring  about  a  more  permanent  derangement  of  this  apparatus ; 
and  more  particularly  of  its  Encephalic3  portion,— which  seems  to 
be  singled  out  by  alcohol,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  the  spinal  cord, 
just  as  the  spinal  cord  is  affected  by  strychnine,4  almost  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  encephalon.6   This  we  shall  find  to  be  the  case.    There 
are,  in  fact,  scarcely  any  diseases  of  the  Encephalon,  except  such  as 
are  of  a  purely  constitutional  nature,  (such  as  tubercular 6  or  cancer- 
ous affections,)  which  are  not  so  much  more  frequent  among  the 
habitually  intemperate  than  among  the  habitually  sober,  as  to  justify 
us  in  regarding  the  excessive  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  as  among  the 
most  efficacious  of  the  conditions  of  their  production.     It  will  be 
proper,  therefore,  to  pass  the  principal  diseases  in  review  before  us, 
and  to  inquire  into  the  mode  in  which  habitual  excess  in  the  use  of 
alcoholic  drinks  tends  to  produce  each  of  them. 

24.  Delirium  Ebriosum."1 — Considering  that  the  state  of  intoxi- 
cation is  itself,  strictly  speaking,  a  transient  paroxysm  of  insanity, 
it  can  excite  no  surprise  that  a  confirmed  state  of  mental  derange- 

1  Depletion  —  removal  or  loss  of  blood  or  of  its  constituents  by  bleeding 
purging,  &c. 

a  Modus  operandi — mode  or  manner  in  -which  it  acts. 
3  Encephalic  portion  —  the  portion  within  the  head. 

*  Strychnine  —  the  active  principle  of  nux  vomica. 
'  Encephalon  —  the  brain. 

*  Tubercular — scrofulous,  consumptive. 
Delirium  ebriosum  —  the  delirium  of  drunkenness. 


ON  THE  HEALTHY  SYSTEM.  39 

mcnt  should  frequently  result  from  the  repetition  of  the  cause  which 
produces  the  single  paroxysm.  There  are,  in  fact,  some  individuals 
in  whom  a  fit  of  positive  madness,  persisting  for  some  little  time 
after  the  immediate  effects  of  the  stimulus  have  subsided,  is  brought 
on  by  every  excess  in  drinking.  The  head  becomes  extremely  hot, 
the  face  flushed,  the  pulse  very  frequent,  full,  and  hard,  the  temper 
is  excessively  violent,  the  individual  sometimes  attacking  every  one 
who  comes  in  his  way,  and  being  always  prone  to  ferocity  against 
any  one  who  opposes  him ;  and  all  sense  of  danger  being  lost,  he  is 
not  deterred  from  violence  by  the  fear  of  personal  injury,  but  rushes 
rnadly  upon  what  may  prove  his  destruction.  This  condition,  the 
delirium  ebriosum  of  Darwin,  is  obviously  an  exaggeration  of  one 
of  the  ordinary  forms  of  excitement  in  common  intoxication ;  and 
it  usually  subsides  in  a  day  or  two,  if  the  individual  be  simply  re- 
strained from  doing  mischief  to  himself  or  others.'  It  is  sometimes 
accompanied,  however,  with  tremors,1  even  in  the  midst  of  violent 
excitement ;  and  this  form  constitutes  the  transition  to  the  disorder 
next  to  be  noticed.  The  frequent  repetition  of  this  paroxysm,  of 
which,  as  of  ordinary  drunkenness,  the  stimulating  action  of  alcohol 
on  the  nervous  centres  must  be  regarded  as  the  immediate  cause,  is 
almost  certain,  like  the  recurrence  of  regular  maniacal  paroxysms, 
to  end  in  some  settled  form  of  Insanity. 

25.  Delirium  Tremens* — The  habitual  drunkard,  who  has  ex 
hausted  his  nervous  power  by  continual  over-excitement,  is  liable  to 
another  form  of  disordered  action  of  his  brain,  which  is  commonly 
known  from  one  of  its  most  marked  symptoms, — the  peculiar  tremor 
of  the  limbs, — as  delirium  tremens.  This  state  is  in  many  respects 
the  opposite  of  the  preceding.  There  is  little  or  no  heat  of  the  head 
or  flushing  of  the  face,  the  skin  is  cool  and  humid,  and  even  chilly ; 
the  pulse,  though  frequent,  is  small  and  weak ;  and  the  temper, 
though  very  irritable,  is  riot  violent, — the  prominent  disposition,  in- 
deed, being  anxiety  and  apprehension  of  injury  or  danger.  There 
is  an  almost  entire  want  of  sleep ;  and  even  if  repose  be  obtained, 
it  is  very  imperfect,  being  interrupted  by  frightful  dreams.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  waking  state  is  frequently  so  disturbed  by  illusions 
of  a  disagreeable  or  frightful  nature,  that  it  differs  but  little  from 
that  of  sleep,  save  in  the  partial  consciousness  of  external  things. 
The  following  is  the  vivid  picture  of  this  condition,  given  by  one 
who  has  himself  experienced  it.3  "  For  three  days  I  endured  more 
agony  than  pen  could  describe,  even  were  it  guided  by  the  hand  of 
a  Dante.  Who  can  tell  the  horrors  of  that  horrible  malady,  aggra- 
vated as  it  is  by  the  almost  ever-abiding  consciousness  that  it  is 
self-sought?  Hideous  faces  appeared  on  the  walls,  and  on  the  ceil- 

*  Tremors  —  an  unsteady,  tremulous  motion  of  the  limbs ;  shaking. 

a  Delirium  tremens  •«—  delirium  with  tremors  of  the  limbs ;  mania  a  potu. 

'  Autobiography  of  J.  B.  Gough,  p.  70. 


40  EFFECTSOPALCOHOL 

ing,  and  on  the  floors ;  foul  things  crept  along  the  bed-clothes,  and 
glaring  eyes  peered  into  mine.  I  was  at  one  time  surrounded  by 
millions  of  monstrous  spiders,  who  crawled  slowly,  slowly  over  every 
limb ;  whilst  beaded  drops  of  perspiration  would  start  to  my  brow, 
and  my  limbs  would  shiver  until  the'  bed  rattled  again.  Strange 
lights  would  dance  before  my  eyes,  and  then  suddenly  the  very 
blackness  of  darkness  would  appal  me  by  its  dense  gloom.  All  at 
once,  whilst  gazing  at  a  frightful  creation  of  my  distempered  mind, 
I  seemed  struck  with  sudden  blindness.  I  knew  a  candle  was  burn- 
ing in  the  room,  but  I  could  not  see  it.  All  was  so  pitchy  dark.  I 
lost  the  sense  of  feeling  too,  for  I  endeavoured  to  grasp  my  arm  in 
one  hand,  but  consciousness  was  gone.  I  put  my  hand  to  my  side, 
my  head,  but  felt  nothing,  and  still  I  knew  my  limbs  and  frame 
were  there.  And  then  the  scene  would  change.  I  was  falling — 
falling  swiftly  as  an  arrow  far  down  into  some  terrible  abyss;  and 
so  like  reality  was  it,  that  as  I  fell  I  could  see  the  rocky  sides  of  the 
horrible  shaft,  where  mocking,  gibing,  mowing,  fiend-like  forms  were 
perched ;  and  I  could  feel  the  air  rushing  past  me,  making  my  hair 
stream  out  by  the  force  of  the  unwholesome  blast.  Then  the 
paroxysm  sometimes  ceased  for  a  few  moments,  and  I  would  sink 
back  on  my  pallet  drenched  with  perspiration,  utterly  exhausted, 
and  feeling  a  dreadful  certainty  of  the  renewal  of  my  torments." 

26.  With  this  disturbed  condition  of  the  brain,  a  more  or  less 
disordered  state  of  the  digestive  apparatus  is  commonly  associated. 
The  tongue  is  furred,  the    stomach  unable  to  bear  food  without 
vomiting  or  a  sense  of  oppression  j  the  bowels  are  usually  consti- 
pated, or,  if  they  be  relaxed,  the  stools  are  dark  and  offensive,  and 
the  urine  is  scanty.     Sometimes  the  disease    proceeds  to   a  fatal 
termination,  which  is  generally  preceded  by  contracted  pupil,  occa- 
sionally strabismus,  incessant  low  delirium,  increase  in  the  muscular 
tremor  almost  amounting  to  subsultus  tendinum,1  and  other  indi- 
cations of  nervous  exhaustion ;  the  pulse  becomes  thready,  and  at 
the  same  time  more  rapid,  so  that  it  sometimes  can  scarcely  be 
counted ;  cold  sweats  break  out  upon  the  skin,  and  the  chillness  of 
the  surface  increases,  proceeding  from  the  extremities  to  the  trunk. 
Sometimes  a  calm  supervenes  shortly  before  death ;  whilst  in  other 
instances  the  patient  is  carried  off  in  a  convulsion.     On  the  other 
hand  the  bad  symptoms  may  gradually  abate,  and  the  supervention 
of  profound  sleep  gives  to  the  exhausted  energies  of  the  nervous 
system  the  means  of  restoration.     Sometimes,  however,  the  recovery 
is  never  complete,  but  the  patient  remains  in  a  state  of  Melancholia, 
with  more  or  less  of  deficiency  of  intellectual  power ;  and  this  more 
especially  happens  after  repeated  attacks  of  the  disease. 

27.  Between  the  Delirium  Ebriosum  and  the  proper  Delirium 

1  Subsultus  tendinum  —  a  starting  or  spasmodic  twitching  of  the  tendons. 


ON     THE     HEALTHY     SYSTEM.  41 

Trrmens,  there  are  several  intermediate  conditions:  the  former, 
indeed,  being  very  apt  to  pass  into  the  latter,  if  depleting  measures' 
be  imprudently  adopted.  The  latter  may  present  itself,  like  the 
former,  as  the  direct  and  immediate  consequence  of  the  excessive 
use  of  Alcoholic  liquors;  but  "there  is  this  important  difference, — 
that  while  the  former  is  but  an  exalted  manifestation  of  the  primary 
excitement  ordinarily  produced  by  alcohol,  the  latter,  supervening 
at  the  end  of  a  prolonged  debauch,  is  the  consequence  of  exhaustion 
produced  by  continued  excitement.  Delirium  Tremens  more  fre- 
quently occurs,  however,  when  the  accustomed  stimulus  is  with- 
held ;  and  it  is  then  no  less  obviously  the  result  of  the  previously 
exhausted  condition  of  the  nervous  system,  which  nothing  save  the 
renewal  of  the  potent  stimulus  can  excite  to  anything  like  regular 
action.  In  fact,  this  terrible  state  is  the  manifestation  of  the  disor- 
dered condition  to  which  the  brain  has  been  brought  by  habitual 
excess,  and  plainly  exhibits  the  complete  perversion  of  its  functional 
power  and  of  its  nutritive  operations.  In  fatal  cases,  no  morbid 
appearances  are  found,  that  in  the  least  indicate  turgescence  of  the 
vessels  or  inflammatory  excitement,  unless  the  delirium  have  par- 
taken of  the  characters  of  that  which  directly  arises  out  of  intoxica- 
tion. And  it  is  manifest,  therefore,  that  the  disordered  condition 
must  be  in  the  nervous  pulp  itself,  and  that  it  must  be  of  a  kind  to 
keep  up  morbid  and  irritative  activity,  at  the  same  time  that  the 
tissue  is  incapable  of  exercising  those  reparative  functions,  which 
are  carried  on  in  the  healthy  condition  during  the  state  of  repose. 

28.  Although,  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases,  Delirium  Tremens 
is  the  immediate  or  the  consecutive  result  of  the  excessive  use  of 
Alcoholic  liquors,  yet  it  may  occur  independently  of  them ;  but  its 
other  causes  are  such  as  resemble  the  excitement  of  alcohol,  in  pro- 
ducing exhaustion  or  depression  of  the  nervous  power, — such,  for 
instance,  as  excessive  depletion,  the  shock  of  severe  injuries,  or  ex- 
treme cold.     But  in  most  of  the  cases  in  which  one  or  other  of 
these  appears  to  be  the  exciting  cause,  a  predisposition  has  been 
established  by  habitual  intemperance;  and  this  has  been  especially 
remarked  of  the  delirium  traumaticum.2 

29.  It  is  important  to  remark,  that  a  slighter  form  of  this  disorder, 
marked  by  tremors  of  the  hands  and  feet,  deficiency  of  nervous 
power,  and  occasional  illusions,  will  sometimes  appear  as  a  conse- 
quence of  habitual  tippling,  even  without  intoxication  having  been 
once  produced.     And  a  still  slighter  manifestation  of  the  want  of 
control  over  the  muscular  apparatus — the  trembling  of  the  hands  in 
the  execution  of  a  voluntary  movement — is  familiar  to  every  one  as 
extremely  frequent  among  the  habitually  intemperate.      We  thus 

1  Depleting  measures  —  whatever  empties  the  blood-vessels ;  bleeding,  purg- 
ing, &c. 

a  Delirium  traumaticum  —  delirium  from  wounds  or  injuries. 

4* 


42 


E  V  F  3  0  T  S     OF     ALCOHOL 


see  that  the  disease  is  at  least  as  much  dependent  upon  the  disor- 
dered state  of  nutrition,  consequent  upon  the  habitual  presence  of 
alcohol  in  the  blood,  as  it  is  upon  that  positive  exhaustion  of  nerv- 
ous power  consequent  upon  the  violence  of  the  excitement,  which  is 
the  more  immediate  effect  of  the  stimulus. 

30.  Insanity.  —  Such  being  the  case,  we  have   no  difficulty  in 
understanding  how  the  habitual  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  in  excess 
becomes  one  of  the  most  frequent  causes  of  Insanity,  properly  so 
called,  i.  e.  of  settled  Mental  Derangement.     Upon  that  point,  all 
writers  on  the  subject  are  agreed,  however  much  they  may  differ  in 
their  appreciation  of  the  relative  frequency  of  this  and  of  other 
causes.     The  proportion,  in  fact,  will  vary  according  to  the  character 
of  the  population   on  which  the  estimate  has  been  formed ;   and 
also  according  to  the  mode  in  which  it  has  been  made.     Thus,  in 
Pauper  Lunatic  Asylums,  the  proportion  of  those  who  have  become 
insane  from   Intemperance,  is    usually  much  larger  than  it  is  in 
Asylums  for  the  reception  of  Lunatics  from  the  higher  classes, 
among  whom  intemperance  is  less  frequent,  while  causes  of  a  purely 
moral  and  intellectual  nature  operate  upon  them  with  greater  inten- 
sity.    And  again,  if  in  all  cases  in  which  habitual  intemperance  has 
been  practised,  it  be  set  down  as  the  cause  of  the  mental  disorder,, 
the  proportion  becomes  much  larger  than  it  will  be,  if  (as  happens 
in  many  cases,)  some  other  cause  have  been  in  operation  concur- 
rently, and  the  disorder  be  set  down  as  its  result,  no  notice  what- 
ever being  taken  of  the  habit  of  intemperance.     This  omission  must 
be  particularly  allowed  for,  when  the  relative  proportion  of  intem- 
perance to  other  causes  is  being  estimated  in  regard  to  the  middle 
and  higher  classes ;  on  account  of  the  strong  desire  which  usually 
exists  among  the  friends  of  the  patient,  to  conceal  the  nature  of  his 
previous  habits,  and  to  lay  his  disorder  entirely  to  the  account  of 
the  cause  from  which  it  has  seemed  immediately  to  proceed. 

31.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  those  who  have  weakened  and 
disordered  the  nutrition  of  the  brain  by  habitual  Intemperance,  are 
far  more  liable  than  others  to  be  strongly  affected  by  those  causes, 
moral  or  physical,  to  which  the  Mental  Derangement  is  more  imme- 
diately attributable;    so  that  the  habit  of  intemperance  has  con- 
tributed, as  a  predisposing  cause,  at  least  as  much  towards  its  pro- 
duction, as  what  is  commonly  termed  the  exciting  cause  has  done. 
In  fact,  of  predisposing  causes  generally,  it  may  be  remarked,  that 
their  action  upon  the  system  is  that  of  slowly  and  imperceptibly 
modifying  its  nutritive  operations,  so  as  gradually  to  alter  the  che- 
mical, physical,  and  thereby  the  vital  properties  of  the  fabric ;  and 
thus  to  prepare  it  for  being  acted  on  by  causes  which,  in  the  healthy 
condition,  produce  no  influence.     And  although  that  one  of  the 
conditions  in  previous  operation  is  often  singled  out  as  the  cause, 
from  which  the  result  may  seem  most  directly  to  proceed,  yet  it 


ON    THE    HEALTHY    SYSTEM. 


43 


frequently  happens  that  it  Las  really  had  a  far  smaller  share  in  the 
production  of  the  disorder,  than  those  remoter  causes  whose  opera- 
tion has  been  more  enduring  and  really  more  effectual.1 

32.  In    the   Statistical   Tables,  published  by  the   Metropolitan 
Commissioners  of   Lunacy,  in  1844,  comprehending    the    returns 
from  98  Asylums  in  England  and  Wales,  we  find  that  out  of  12,007 
cases  whose  supposed  causes  were  returned,  1799,  or  nearly  15  per 
cent.,  are  set  down  to  the  account  of  Intemperance;  but  besides 
these,  551  or  4-6  per  cent,   are  attributed  to  vice  and  sensuality, 
in   which  excessive   use   of  alcoholic  liquors    must    have    shared. 
Moreover  in   every  case  in  which   Hereditary  Predisposition  was 
traceable,  this  was  set  down  as  the  cause ;  notwithstanding  the  noto- 
rious fact  that  such  predisposition  frequently  remains  dormant  until 
it  is  called  forth  by  habitual  intemperance.     It  is  not  more  correct, 
therefore,  to  regard  this  as  the  cause  of  the  disorder,  in  all  the  cases 
in  which  it  is  traceable,  than  it  would  be  to  regard  intemperance  in 
that  light,  in  every  case  in  which  the  patient  had  previously  in- 
dulged in  alcoholic  excesses.     Of  the  2526  cases,  then,  in  which 
the  disorder  is  attributed  to  hereditary  predisposition,  a  considerable 
proportion  might  with  equal  justice  be  set  down  to  the  account  of 
intemperance.     And  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  same  practice 
had  a  great  share  in  the  production  of  the  disease  in  the  3187  cases 
set  down  to  bodily  disorder,  and  in  the  2969  for  which  moral  causes 
are  assigned. 

33.  If  we  turn  from  this  general  statement  to  the  experience  of 
individual  Asylums,  we  frequently  find  the  proportion  much  higher; 
and  curious  variations  are  sometimes  observable  between  the  returns 
for  successive  years.     Thus  in   the  Glasgow  Lunatic  Asylum,  ac- 
cording to   the  report  of   Dr.  Hutcheson,  the  following  were   the 
proportions  which  Intemperance  bore  to  other  causes  during  seven 
years :— 


,„ 

Total  number 
of  patients. 

CMS-OS  where 
the  disease 
was  here- 

Cases where 
the  cause 
was  un- 

Cases where 
intemperance 

was  the 

Proportion  per 
cent,  of  intem- 
perance to  other 

ditary,  &c. 

known. 

cause. 

c;ivi«js. 

1840 

149 

3 

34 

20 

l:j  4 

1841 

157 

20 

44 

30 

I'M 

1842 

199 

54 

20 

46 

23-1 

1848 

327 

116 

38 

31 

9-4a 

1844 

390 

77 

41 

53 

18-2 

1845 

364 

47 

38 

90 

24-7 

1846 

414 

49 

62 

105 

25-3 

v^Total 

1900 

366 

277 

375 

19-7 

i 

i 

1  See  Mr.  J.  S.  Mill's  Elements  of  Logic,  vol.  i.  p. '398. 
a  This  marked  diminution  in   the  per  centage  of  cases  attributable  to 
Intemperance  is  chiefly  due  to  the  admission  into  the  Glasgow  Asylum 


44  E  F  F  EC  TS     OF     ALCOHOL 

Of  the  great  increase  which  presents  itself  in  the  number  of 
cases  attributable  to  intemperance  during  the  last  two  years  of  this 
return,  Dr.  Hutcheson  thus  speaks  in  his  report  for  1846  : — "  This 
cause  appears  to  have  operated  on  patients  of  all  ranks ;  and  I  am 
inclined  to  think  that  this  has  been  owing,  in  a  great  measure,  to 
the  excitement  in  which  the  community  was  kept,  by  that  universal 
spirit  of  gambling  which  seized  on  society  like  an  epidemic  mania. 
There  is  a  great  connection  between  general  excitement  and  the 
craving  for  stimulants,  as  may  be  every  day  seen  during  contested 
elections,  public  dinners,  races,  &c.  It  is  also  a  fact  well  known  to 
those  who  have  minutely  studied  the  subject,  that  over-exertion  of 
the  brain  leads  to  a  desire  for  stimulants,  which,  however,  are 
easily  enough  abandoned  when  the  brain  is  allowed  to  rest."  For 
the  reason  already  given,  it  is  probable  that  the  average  proportion 
of  19-7  per  cent,  does  not  by  any  means  represent  the  entire  num- 
ber of  cases  in  which  intemperance  was  the  principal  cause  of  the 
disease ;  and  that  we  should  be  within  the  truth  in  assigning  to  it 
at  least  a  quarter  of  the  whole  number  of  cases. 

34.  In  the  report  of  the  Aberdeen  Lunatic  Asylum  for  1847, 
we  find  Intemperance  specified  as  the  cause  in  17  cases  out  of  93 
admitted ;  but  of  these  93,  there  were  8  cases  in  which  hereditary 
predisposition,  and  11  in  which  predisposition  from  previous  at- 
tacks, was  assigned  as  the  cause ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
of  these  19  cases  a  considerable  proportion  might  be  set  down  in 
part  to  the  account  of  intemperance.  In  the  report  of  the  Dundee 
Lunatic  Asylum,  we  find  that  8  out  of  52  cases  admitted  are  set 
down  to  intemperance;  7  were  hereditary;  and  in  4  the  cause  was 
unknown.  In  other  Asylums,  the  proportion  of  cases  returned  as 

during  the  year  1843,  of  a  number  of  Lunatics  who  had  previously  been 
confined  at  Arran,  for  the  most  part  during  several  years.  Of  the  origin 
of  their  Insanity  very  little  was  known ;  and  they  were  chiefly  assigned  to 
the  head  of  "  Hereditary  and  Constitutional  Predisposition,"  thereby  di- 
minishing the  per  centage  of  the  other  causes.  Among  the  recent  cases 
admitted  during  the  year,  however,  the  per  centage  attributable  to  intem- 
perance was  decidedly  less  than  usual ;  which  circumstance  is  attributed 
by  Dr.  Hutcheson  to  the  improved  condition  of  trade,  which  caused  an- 
adequate  demand  for  labour.  On  this  point  he  makes  the  following  re- 
marks, in  his  report  for  1842,  p.  36  : — "It  may  be  said,  that  when  wages 
:.  -e  low  and  occupation  difficult  to  be  obtained,  men  will  have  less  money 
to  spend,  and  consequently  will  drink  less.  A  pretty  extensive  observa- 
tion of  the  different  grades  of  the  working  classes,  for  upwards  of  fifteen 
years,  has  convinced  me  that  this  opinion  is  erroneous ;  for  I  have  gene- 
rally found,  that  want  and  intemperance  go  hand  in  hand.  Whenever  a 
man  falis  below  a  certain  point  in  physical  comfort,  he  becomes  reckless, 
and  sensual  enjoyment  forms  his  only  pleasure.  To  this  he  will  sacrifice 
everything  ;  and  habits  of  intemperance  are  frequently  acquired  in  seasons 
of  distress,  which  the  individual,  in  more  favourable  circumstances,  finds 
:t  impossible  to  lay  aside." 


ON  THE  HEALTHY  SYSTEM.  45 

due  to  intemperance  is  much  greater  than  in  those  already  referred 
to.  Thus  in  the  Commissioner's  report  already  cited,  we  find  that 
in  nine  Provincial  private  Asylums,  the  proportion  which  the  cases 
assigned  to  Intemperance  alone  bears  to  those  assigned  to  other 
causes,  is  no  less  than  32-62  per  cent.;  independently  of  5-67  per 
cent,  which  are  set  down  to  the  account  of  "  Vice  and  Sensuality." 
There  is  an  Asylum  in  the  East  of  London,  where  the  proportion 
of  cases  attributed  to  intemperance  alone  amounted  to  41-07  per 
cent. ;  and  those  arising  out  of  this  in  combination  with  other  vices, 
to  22  per  cent,  of  the  whole  number  whose  causes  were  assigned. 
And  it  is  stated  by  Dr.  Macnish,  (op.  cit.,  p.  193,)  that  of  286 
Lunatics  at  that  time  in  the  Richmond  Hospital,  Dublin,  one  half 
owed  their  madness  to  drinking. 

35.  Oinomania. '  —  There  is  one  form  of  Insanity,  which  has  so 
peculiar  a  relation  to  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors,  as  to  call  for  par- 
ticular consideration  in  this  place;  and  in  order  that  its  character? 
may  be  presented  in  the  most  unexceptionable  manner,  the  authoi 
avails  himself  of  the  excellent  account  of  the  disease  which  is  given 
by  Dr.  Hutcheson  in  the  Report  of  the  Glasgow  Lunatic  Asylum 
for  1842,  (pp.  39-44) ;  deeming  its  value  sufficient  to  justify  him 
in  presenting  it  without  abridgment.  The  designation  Oinomania, 
he  would  remark,  has  been  substituted  by  Dr.  H.  for  the  less  ap- 
propriate term  Dipsomania  used  by  other  authors.  "  This  form  of 
mania/'  he  observes,  "is  quite  diiFerent  from  drunkenness,  which, 
however,  may  lead  to  it;  the  diagnostic2  mark  of  the  disease  being 
the  irresistible  propensity  to  swallow  stimulants  in  enormous  doses, 
whenever  and  wherever  they  can  be  procured.  There  are  indi- 
viduals who  at  the  festive  board  invariably  become  excited,  if  not 
intoxicated,  but  who  are  otherwise  habitually  sober,  and  in  the 
course  of  the  year  drink  much  less  than  others  who  never  appear 
to  be  under  the  influence  of  stimulants.  Others  indulge  in  their 
potations  in  a  regular  manner,  and  daily  consume  a  larger  quantity 
of  liquor  than  is  consistent  with  good  health  or  sobriety.  All 
these,  however,  possess  self-control,  and  can  at  any  time  refrain 
from  stimulants;  but  those  affected  with  the  disease  cannot  do  so, 
however  convinced  they  may  be  of  the.  impropriety  of  yielding  to 
their  propensity,  or  however  desirous  they  may  be  to  subdue  it.  I 
repeat,  that  the  disease  does  not  consist  in  the  mere  act  or  habit  of 
becoming  intoxicated;  but  in  the  irresistible  impulse  which  drives 
the  unhappy  being  to  do  that  which  he  knows  to  be  pernicious  and 
wrong,  and  which,  in  the  intervals  of  his  paroxysms,  he  views  with 
loathing  and  disgust.  He  derives  no  pleasure  from  taste,  for  he 
gulps  down  the  liquor  of  whatever  kind  it  may  be ;  or  from  society. 

1  Oinomania  —  wine  mania;  an  inordinate  and  uncontrollable  thirst  for 
excessive  quantities  of  intoxicating  drinks. 
a  Diagnostic  —  distinguishing. 


46  EFFECTS    OP    ALCOHOL 

for  he  generally  avoids  society;  but  he  only  derives  a  temporary 
satisfaction  from  the  gratification  of  his  insane  impulse,  or  rather 
from  freeing  himself  from  the  overwhelming  misery  which  the  non- 
gratification  of  his  impulse  inflicts  on  him.  The  disease  appears  in 
three  forms — the  acute,  the  periodic,  and  the  chronic. 

"  The  Acute  is  the  rarest  of  the  three.  I  have  seen  it  occur 
from  hemorrhage  in  the  puerperal  state,  in  recovery  from  fevers, 
from  excessive  venereal  indulgence,  and  in  some  forms  of  dyspepsia. 
When  it  proceeds  from  any  of  the  first  three  causes,  it  is  easily 
cured  by  restoring  the  strength  of  the  patient.  When  it  arises 
from  the  fourth  cause  mentioned,  it  is  not  so  easily  removed,  and  is 
very  apt  to  assume  the  chronic  form. 

"  The  Periodic  or  paroxysmal  form  is  much  more  frequent  than 
the  acute.  This  is  often  observed  in  individuals  who  have  suffered 
from  injuries  of  the  head,  females  during  pregnancy,  at  the  cata- 
menial  periods,  on  the  approach  of  the  critical  period  and  after- 
wards, and  in  men  whose  brains  are  overworked.  When  it  occurs 
from  injury  of  the  head,  the  case  is  hopeless.  In  the  other  in- 
stances it  may  be  cured.  In  some  cases  it  occurs  whenever  the 
individual  partakes  of  stimulants.  In  these,  total  abstinence  is  the 
only  remedy.  Like  the  form  about  to  be  mentioned,  it  is  frequently 
hereditary,  being  derived  from  a  parent  predisposed  to  insanity  or 
addicted  to  intemperance.  In  such  cases,  the  probability  of  cure 
is  very  small.  The  individual  thus  affected  abstains  for  weeks  or 
months  from  all  stimulants,  and  frequently  loathes  them  for  the 
same  period.  But  by  degrees  he  becomes  uneasy,  listless,  and  de- 
pressed, feels  incapable  of  application,  and  restless,  and  at  last 
begins  to  drink  till  he  is  intoxicated.  He  awakes  from  a  restless 
sleep,  seeks  again  a  repetition  of  the  intoxicating  dose,  and  con- 
tinues the  same  course  for  a  week  or  longer.  Then  a  stage  of 
apathy  and  depression  follows,  during  which  he  feels  a  loathing  for 
stimulants,  is  the  prey  of  remorse,  and  regrets  bitterly  his  yielding 
to  his  malady.  This  is  followed  by  fresh  vigour,  diligent  applica- 
tion to  business,  and  a  determined  resolution  never  again  to  give 
way.  But,  alas  !  sooner  or  later  the  paroxysm  recurs,  and  the  same 
scene  is  re-enacted,  till  ultimately,  unless  the  disease  be  checked, 
he  falls  a  victim  to  the  physical  effects  of  intemperance,  becomes 
maniacal,  or  imbecile,  or  affected  with  the  form  of  the  disease  next 
to  be  mentioned. 

"  Of  all  the  forms  of  Oinomania  the  most  common  is  the  chronic. 
The  causes  of  this  are  injuries  of  the  head,  diseases  of  the  heart, 
hereditary  predisposition,  and  intemperance.  This  is  by  far  the 
most  incurable  form  of  the  malady.  The  patient  is  incessantly 
under  the  most  overwhelming  desire  for  stimulants.  He  will  dis- 
regard every  impediment,  sacrifice  comfort  and  reputation,  with- 
stand the  claims  of  affection,  consign  his  family  to  misery  and  dis- 


ON     THE     HEALTHY     SYSTEM.  47 

grace,  and  deny  himself  the  common  necessaries  of  life  to  gratify 
his  insane  propensity.  In  the  morning,  morose  and  fretful,  dis- 
gusted with  himself,  and  dissatisfied  with  all  around  him,  weak  and 
tremulous,  incapable  of  any  exertion  either  of  mind  or  body,  his 
tirst  feeling  is  a  desire  for  stimulants,  with  every  fresh  dose  of 
which  he  recovers  a  certain  degree  of  vigour  both  of  body  and 
mind,  till  he  feels  comparatively  comfortable,  A  few  hours  pass 
without  the  craving  being  so  strong;  but  it  soon  returns,  and  the 
patient  drinks  till  intoxication  is  produced.  Then  succeed  the  rest- 
less sleep,  the  suffering,  the  comparative  tranquillity,  the  excite- 
ment, and  the  state  of  insensibility;  and,  unless  absolutely  se- 
cluded from  all  means  of  gratifying  the  propensity,  the  patient 
continues  the  same  course  till  he  dies,  or  becomes  imbecile.  This 
is  that  fearful  state  portrayed  by  Charles  Lamb,  in  which  reason 
revisits  the  mind  only  during  the  transient  period  of  incipient  in 
toxication. 

"  It  must  be  remarked,  that  in  all  these  forms  of  the  disease  the 
patient  is  perfectly  incapable  of  self-control ;  that  he  is  impelled  by 
an  irresistible  impulse  to  gratify  his  propensity;  that  while  the 
paroxysm  is  on  him,  he  is  regardless  of  his  health,  his  life,  and  all 
that  can  make  life  dear  to  him ;  that  he  is  prone  to  dissipate  his 
property,  and  easily  becomes  the  prey  of  the  designing ;  and  that 
in  many  cases  he  exhibits  a  propensity  to  commit  homicide  or  sui- 
cide. He  is  thus  dangerous  to  himself  and  others,  and  however 
responsible  he  may  have  been  for  bringing  the  disease  on  himself, 
his  responsibility  ceases  as  soon  as  he  comes  under  the  influence  of 
the  malady.  The  disease,  however,  may  not  be  brought  on  by  the 
act  of  the  individual ;  and  then  it  is  clear  at  once,  that  neither  di- 
rectly nor  indirectly  can  he  be  deemed  responsible.  Put  suppose 
that  it  were  the  result  of  his  previous  conduct,  I  repeat  that  how- 
ever culpable  he  may  have  been  for  that,  he  is  not  a  responsible 
being  while  afflicted  with  the  malady ;  for  I  can  see  no  distinction 
between  this  form  of  the  disease  and  any  other  which  has  been  ID 
duced  by  the  habits  or  acts  of  the  individual. 

"  The  only  chance  of  cure  or  alleviation,  is  from  attention  to  the 
health,  and  abstinence  from  intoxicating  liquors.  Neither  can  be 
secured  so  long  as  the  patient  is  at  large ;  and  no  amendment  can 
be  depended  on,  unless  he  has  undergone  a  long  course  of  discipline 
and  probation.  Considering,  then,  that  the  individual  is  irresponsi- 
ble and  dangerous  to  himself  and  others — that,  if  left  uncontrolled, 
he  will  ruin  his  family — and  that  his  disease  can  be  treated  only  in 
an  Asylum,  it  is  not  only  merciful  to  him  and  his  relatives,  but 
necessary  for  the  security  of  the  public,  that  he  be  deprived  of  the 
liberty  which  he  abuses  and  perverts,  and  that  he  should  be  pre- 
vented from  committing  crimes  instead  of  being  punished,  or  I  should 
rather  say,  being  the  object  of  vindictive  infliction  after  he  has  per- 


48  EFFECTS    OF    ALCOHOL 

peirated  them.  So  convinced  are  some  affected  with  the  periodical 
form  of  the  disease,  of  the  necessity  of  being  controlled,  that,  when 
the  first  symptoms  of  their  paroxysm  are  felt,  they  voluntarily  enter 
an  Asylum,  and  remain  till  the  attack  has  passed  off.  These,  how- 
ever, are  men  of  stronger  minds,  though,  with  all  their  strength, 
incapable  of  resisting  the  disease;  and,  surely,  what  they  feel  to  be 
their  only  refuge  to  avoid  the  impending  evil,  it  cannot  be  unjust  or 
harsh  to  force  on  others  whose  minds  are  more  impaired.  Such 
cases  soon  become  rational  in  an  Asylum ;  and  when  the  individual 
can  so  far  control  himself  as  voluntarily  to  surrender  his  liberty  on 
the  first  premonitory  symptoms  of  the  malady  presenting  themselves, 
he  may  be  dismissed  after  a  shorter  probation.  It  is  otherwise  with 
those  who  have  not  that  self-control,  or  who  fancy  that  they  are  un- 
justly interfered  with  when  checked  in  their  career.  They  require 
a  much  longer  probation,  which  should  be  increased  at  each  return 
of  their  malady. 

"Of  the  chronic  form,  I  have  seen  only  one  case  completely  cured, 
and  that  after  a  seclusion  of  two  years'  duration.  In  general  it  is 
not  cured;  and  no  sooner  is  the  patient  liberated,  than  he  mani- 
fests all  the  symptoms  of  his  disease.  Paradoxical  though  the  state- 
ment may  appear  to  be,  such  individuals  are  sane  only  when  confined 
in  an  Asylum," 

The  Superintendent  of  the  Dundee  Asylum,  in  remarking  upon 
the  frequent  causation  of  Insanity  by  Intemperance,  makes  a  very 
similar  statement  of  the  results  of  his  observations;  and  regrets  that 
there  are  not  in  this  country  such  Asylums  as  are  understood  to 
exist  in  the  United  States,  for  the  reception  of  those  incorrigible 
drunkards,  in  whom  the  power  of  self-control  has  been  altogether 
destroyed  by  their  repeated  yielding  to  the  craving  for  Alcoholic 
stimulants.  ^, 

3b.  Mental  Debility  in  the  Offspring.  —  It  is  scarcely  necessary 
to  accumulate  further  proof  in  support  of  the  assertion,  that,  of  all 
the  single  causes  of  Insanity,  habitual  Intemperance  is  the  most 
potent,  and  that  it  aggravates  the  operation  of  other  causes.  We 
have  now  to  show  that  it  has  a  special  tendency  to  produce  Idiocy, 
Insanity,  or  Mental  Debility,  in  the  offspring.  Looking  to  the  de- 
cided tendency  to  hereditary  predisposition  in  the  ordinary  forms 
of  Insanity;  looking  also  to  the  fact  that  any  perverted  or  imperfect 
conditions  of  the  nutritive  functions  established  in  the  parent,  are 
also  liable  to  manifest  themselves  in  the  offspring,  (as  shown  in  the 
transmission  of  the  gouty  and  tubercular  diatheses  ') ;  we  should 
expect  to  find  that  the  offspring  of  habitual  drunkards  would  share 
with  those  of  lunatics  in  the  predisposition  to  insanity,  and  that 

»  Tubercular  diathesis  —  a  condition  of  the  system  predisposing  to  scrofula 
>r  consumption. 


O  N     T  II  E     II  E  A  L  T  II  Y     S  Y  S  T  E  M  .  49 

they  would,  moreover,  be  especially  prone  to  intemperate  habits. 
That  such  is  the  case,  is  within  the  knowledge  of  all  who  have 
enjoyed  extensive  opportunities  of  observation ;  and  the  fact  has 
come  down  to  us  sanctioned  by  the  experience  of  antiquity.  Thus 
Plutarch  says,  "One  drunkard  begets  another;"  and  Aristotle 
remarks  that  u  drunken  women  bring  forth  children  like  unto  them- 
selves/' Dr.  W.  A.  F.  Browne,  the  resident  Physician  of  the 
Oichton  Lunatic  Asylum  at  Dumfries,  makes  the  following  state- 
ments: —  "The  drunkard  not  only  injures  and  enfeebles  his  own 
nervous  system,  but  entails  mental  disease  upon  his  family.  His 
daughters  are  nervous  and  hysterical ;  his  sons  are  weak,  wayward, 
eccentric,  and  sink  insane  under  the  pressure  of  excitement,  of  some 
unforeseen  exigency,  or  of  the  ordinary  calls  of  duty.  At  present  I 
have  two  patients  who  appear  to  inherit  a  tendency  to  unhealthy 
action  of  the  brain,  from  mothers  addicted  to  drinking;  and  an- 
other, an  idiot,  whose  father  was  a  drunkard."  l  The  author  has 
learned  from  Dr.  Hutcheson,  that  the  results  of  his  observations  are 
precisely  in  accordance  with  the  foregoing. — On  this  point,  however, 
the  most  striking  fact  that  the  writer  has  met  with,  is  contained  in 
the  Report  on  Idiocy  lately  made  by  Dr.  Howe  to  the  legislature 
of  Massachusetts.  "  The  habits  of  the  parents  of  300  of  the  Idiots 
were  learned ;  and  145,  or  nearly  one-ha/f,  are  reported  as  '  known 
to  be  habitual  drunkards/  Such  parents,  it  is  affirmed,  give  a  weak 
and  lax  constitution  to  their  children;  who  are,  consequently,  'de- 
ficient in  bodily  and  vital  energy/  and  predisposed  by  their  very 
organisation  to  have  cravings  for  alcoholic  stimulants;  many  of 
these  children  are  feeble  and  live  irregularly.  Having  a  lower 
vitality,  they  feel  the  want  of  some  stimulation.  If  they  pursue 
the  course  of  their  fathers,  which  they  have  more  temptation  to  fol- 
low, and  less  power  to  avoid,  than  the  children  of  the  temperate, 
they  add  to  their  hereditary  weakness,  and  increase  the  tendency  to 
idiocy  in  their  constitution ;  and  this  they  leave  to  their  children 
after  them.  The  parents  of  case  No.  62  were  drunkards,  and  Had 
seven  idiotic  children."  2 

37.  There  is  a  prevalent  impression  that  idiocy  is  particulaily 
liable  to  occur  in  the  offspring  of  a  procreation  that  has  taken  place 
when  one  or  both  of  the  parents  were  in  a  state  of  intoxication.  A 
striking  example  of  this  kind  is  related  in  the  Phrenological  Jour- 
nal (vol.  vii.  p.  471)  ;  both  the  parents  were  healthy  and  intelligent, 
and  one  at  least  habitually  sober;  but  both  were  partially  intoxicated 
at  the  time  of  the  intercourse,  and  the  offspring  was  completely 
idiotic.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  monomania  of 
inebriety  not  only  acts  upon,  and  renders  more  deleterious,  whatever 

1  Moral  Statistics  of  Glasgow,  by  William  Logan,  1849,  p.  20. 
"  American  Journal  of  Medical  Sciences,  April,  1849,  p.  437. 

5 


50  EFFECTS     OF    ALCOHOL 

latent  taint  may  exist;  but  vitiates  or  impairs  the  sources  of  bealtb 
for  several  generations.  That  the  effects  of  drunkenness  are  highlj 
inimical  to  a  permanent  healthy  state  of  the  brain,  is  often  proved 
at  a  great  distance  of  time  from  the  course  of  intemperance,  and 
long  after  the  adoption  of  regular  habits. 

38.  Inflammatory  Diseases  of  the  Brain. — All  medical  writers 
agree  in   regarding  Intemperance  as  one  of  the  conditions  which 
tends  to  produce  Inflammatory  diseases  of  the  Encephalon,  no\» 
distinguished  as  Cerebritis '  and  Meningitis ; 2  and  this  is  precisely 
what  might  be  anticipated,  when  it  is  considered  how  great  must  be 
the  derangement  of  the  circulating  and  nutritive  operations,  occa- 
sioned by  the  presence  of  alcohol  in  the  blood.     An  attack  of  acute 
Encephalitis3  not  unfrequently  supervenes  upon  a  debauch,  which  is 
then  regarded  as  its  exciting  cause.4     But  it  may  occur  quite  inde- 
pendently of  any  special  act  of  excess,  in  consequence  of  the  pre- 
disposition arising  from  the  perversion  of  the  normal  functions,  by 
the  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  in  quantities  that  may  never 
produce  actual  intoxication.    Perhaps,  indeed,  this  is  the  more  com- 
mon occurrence.     We  have  seen  that  the  state  of  excitement  first 
produced  in  most  persons  by  the  ingestion  of  alcohol,  would  pass 
into  Meningitis,  (or  rather  inflammation  of  the  convolutions5)  if  it 
were  not  to  subside  with  the  elimination  of  the  alcohol  from  the 
blood.     On  the  other  hand,  the  state  of  torpor  of  the  mental  func- 
tions, which  alcohol  produces  from  the  first  in  some  individuals,  and 
which  comes  on  in  all  if  the  intoxication  be  carried  far  enough,  is 
indicative  of  that  congestion  of  the  substance  of  the  brain,  which, 
if  confirmed,  and  accompanied  by  a  certain  disturbance  of  the  nutri- 
tive operations,  would  become  Cerebritis.6     There  can  be  no  hesita- 
tion, therefore,  in  admitting  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  in  cages 
in  which  it  is  so  obviously  established  by  the  sequence  of  the  phe- 
nomena. 

39.  There  is  another  class  of  diseases  of  the  Brain,  which  arc 
usually  dependent  upon  structural  changes  that  require  a  longer 
period  for  their  development ;  yet  whose  frequent  connection  with 
habitual  intemperance  is  established  both  by  theory  and  observation. 
These  are  Apoplexy,  Paralysis,  and  Epilepsy. 

40.  Apoplexy.  —  The  state  of  profound  Coma,  characteristic  of 
the  advanced  stage  of  intoxication,  may  be  considered  to  be  identi- 
cal with  that  of  congestive  apoplexy,  in  every  respect  save  the  nature 

1  Cerebritis  —  inflammation  of  the  brain. 

*  Meningitis  —  inflammation  of  the  membranes  of  the  brain. 
3  Encephalitis  —  inflammation  of  the  brain. 

*  See,  for  example,  a  fatal  case  related  by  I>.  Percy,  Op.  cif.,  p.  54. 

*  Convolutions —  the    surface    of    the  brain,  which  lias  an  appeareace  of 
r>eing  convoluted  or  thrown  into  folds. 

Cerebritis  —  inflammation  of  the  brain. 


ON  THE  HEALTHY  SYSTEM.  51 

of  its  cause,  and  its  duration.1  A  certain  degree  of  tendency  to 
Apoplexy  may  be  said  to  exist  in  the  slighter  form  of  intoxication; 
the  vessels  of  the  Brain  being  congested,  as  a  consequence  of  in- 
creased action  of  the  heart,  and  of  obstruction  to  the  encephalic 
circulation,  such  as  is  occasioned  by  imperfect  discharge  of  the  func- 
tions of  the  brain;  and  this  obstruction  being  also  favoured  by  that 
partial  stagnation  of  blood  in  the  lungs,  which  takes  place  whenever 
the  respiratory  movements  are  interfered  with.  This  apoplectic 
tendency  seems  to  render  the  intoxicated  man  peculiarly  liable  to 
nuffer  from  causes,  which  would  not  otherwise  produce  rupture  of 
the  vessels ;  thus,  there  are  numerous  instances  on  record,  in  which 
blows  received  in  pugilistic  encounters,  or  other  comparatively  slight 
injuries,  have  occasioned  fatal  hemorrhage  within  the  cranium;2  the 
sufferer  having  been  previously  dosed  with  spirits  in  such  quantity 
as  of  itself  to  produce  a  state  of  congestion  bordering  on  apoplexy. 
And  it  occasionally  happens,  though  this  is  comparatively  rare,  that 
cerebral  hemorrhage  occurs  without  any  external  violence,  after  an 
excessive  indulgence  in  spirituous  potations. 

41.  But  the  influence  of  Alcoholic  Liquors  in  the  causation  of 
Apoplexy  is  usually  of  a  much  more  gradual  nature.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  the  cases  of  Apoplexy  occurring  in  plethoric3  subjects, 
and  not  connected  with  disease  of  the  heart  or  softening  of  the 
arterial  coats,  are  traceable  to  intemperance  in  eating  as  well  as  in 
drinking ;  the  latter,  however,  being  the  chief  cause,  inasmuch  as, 
without  the  habitual  assistance  of  alcoholic  liquors,  continual  excess* 
in  eating  would  generally  soon  correct  itself.  Hence  we  find  that 
such  cases  are  rather  apt  to  occur  among  those  who  take  considerable 
quantities  of  wine  or  malt-liquor  with  full  meals  of  solid  food,  than 
among  the  drinkers  of  spirits,  who  are  seldom  great  eaters.  It  is 
not  difficult  to  see  the  reason  of  this.  For,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
habit  of  excess  in  eating  and  drinking  has  a  tendency  to  produce 
that  condition  of  Plethora,4  which  is  most  peculiarly  prone  to  favoui 
hemorrhagic  effusions;  whilst  on  the  other,  the  ingestion  of  a  large 
quantity  of  so-Hd  food,  by  causing  pressure  on  the  vessels  of  the 
abdominal  viscera,5  and  by  impeding  the  descent  of  the  diaphragm,9 

1  Although,  as  we  have  already  seen,  ($  14,)  the  phenomena  are  so  nearly 
identical,  the  difference  in  the  etiology  involves  an  important  difference  in 
the  treatment ;  the  comatose  drunkard  not  requiring,  nor  bearing,  the  free 
depletion  that  is  proper  in  a  case  of  true  congestive  apoplexy. 

a  Hemorrhage  within  the  cranium  —  an  escape  of  blood  from  the  vessels 
within  the  skull. 

3  PI, 'thoric.  —  full  of  blood;  full  habit. 

4  Plethora  —  fullness  of  blood. 

5  Abdominal  viscera  —  the  stomach,  intestines,  liver,  &c. ;  the  organs  con- 
tained within  the  belly. 

«  Diaphragm  —  a  muscular  partition  which  divides  the  cavity  of  the  chest 
from  that  of  the  belly. 


52  EFFECTS     OF     ALCOHOL 

tends  to  force  an  unusual  quantity  of  blood  into  the  encephalic 
vessels,  as  well  as  to  obstruct  its  return  from  them.  Such  an  habitual 
derangement  of  the  circulation  may  well  be  supposed  to  occasion  a 
progressive  weakening  of  the  vessels  of  the  brain  ;  and  in  this  man- 
ner it  happens  that  after  a  persistence  for  months  or  years  in  this 
course,  Apoplexy  may  supervene,  and  be  its  legitimate  consequence, 
without  the  attack  being  traceable  to  any  extraordinary  indulgence.1 
42.  Of  the  strength  of  the  general  opinion  of  the  Medical  Pro- 
fession,— as  to  the  tendency  of  Alcoholic  stimulants  to  produce  the 
sthenic 2  form  of  Apoplexy,  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  stronger  proof 
than  the  rigidity  of  the  rule  of  abstinence  which  is  laid  down  for 
those,  in  whom  a  disposition  to  it  has  already  manifested  itself. 
Now  if  it  be  necessary  to  lay  down  such  rules  to  prevent  the  recur- 
rence of  the  disease,  is  it  not  most  obvious  that  we  are  justified  in 
attributing  to  an  habitual  violation  of  them  its  first  occurrence  ? 
And  if  habitual  excess  be  so  obviously  a  predisposing  cause,  can 
we  reasonably  deny  that  the  long-continued  even  "  moderate"  use 
of  stimulants  is  likely  to  exert  a  slow,  but  in  the  end  a  decided  in- 
fluence ?  It  is  surely  in  vain  here  to  reply,  that  as  food  is  whole- 
some in  moderation,  but  is  hurtful  in  excess,  so  may  alcohol  be 
also ;  for  alcohol  (as  will  be  more  fully  shown  hereafter)  can  never 
properly  act  as  food,  save  when  other  alimentary  matters  are  defi- 
cient; and  even  in  the  smallest  and  most  diluted  doses,  alcohol 
exerts  an  influence  on  the  vital  properties  of  the  tissues  with  which 
it  is  brought  into  contact,  that  is  never  manifested  by  proper  ali- 
mentary matters. 

.  43.  Paralysis3  and  Epilepsy*.  —  As  the  conditions  upon  which 
the  cerebral  forms  of  Paralysis  depend,  are  so  nearly  the  same 
with  those  which  induce  Apoplexy,  we  cannot  doubt  that  the  con- 
tinual intemperate  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  must  predispose  to  this 
disease,  especially  when  it  accompanies  intemperance  in  eating ; 
and  should  expect,  too,  that  an  attack  of  it  may  sometimes  be 
traced  to  some  particular  excess,  as  its  exciting  cause.  All  medical 
writers  accord  in  stating  ^hat  such  is  the  result  of  actual  observa- 
tion ;  and  here,  again,  we  find  in  the  rules  of  treatment  laid  down, 
an  additional  evidence  of  the  general  conviction  of  the  tendency  of 
alcoholic  liquors,  even  in  small  quantities,  to  induce  a  recurrence  of 
paralytic  attacks.  The  writer  has  had  opportunities  of  noticing 

1  There  is  evidence  that  habitually  excessive  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  has 
a  tendency  to  produce  Hemorrhages  elsewhere,  probably  by  diminishing  the 
plasticity  of  the  blood,  and  by  impairing  the  nutrition  of  the  walls  of  the 
blood-vessels.— (See  g§  52  and  68.) 

*  Sthenic  —  attended  with  strength  and  not  debility. 
3  Paralysis  —  palsy. 

*  Epilepsy  —  a  convulsive  disease  popularly  known  as  the  falling  sick 
ness. 


O  N     T  II  E     IT  E  A  L  T  II  Y     S  Y  S  T  E  M  .  53 

this,  in  the  case  of  two  gentlemen  advanced  in  life,  each  of  whom 
suffered  from  repeated  attacks  of  paralysis,  which  almost  invariably 
supervened  upon  a  violation  of  the  habitual  rule  of  abstinence 
from  fermented  liquors  and  of  extreme  moderation  in  diet. — Pre- 
cisely the  same,  too,  may  be  said  of  Epilepsy,  which  disease  is  now 
generally  attributed  to  a  disordered  state  of  nutrition  of  the  brain, 
of  which  the  paroxysm  is  the  manifestation.  Of  this  disordered 
state  of  nutrition,  intemperance  in  eating  and  drinking  is  among 
the  most  frequent  of  the  predisposing  causes,  especially  when  the 
disease  occurs  in  persons  advanced  in  life ;  whilst  in  those  who  are 
already  predisposed  from  these  or  other  causes,  the  excessive  use  of 
fermented  liquors  is  frequently  the  immediate  or  exciting  cause  of 
the  paroxysm. 

44.  Besides  these  positive  diseases,  a  premature  exhaustion  of 
Nervous  power,  manifested  in  the  decline  of  mental  vigour  and  of 
nervo-muscular  energy,  are  ranked  by  common  consent  among  the 
consequences  of  habitual  excess  in  the  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors; 
»nd  reasons  will  be  given  hereafter  for  the  belief,  that  it  is  occasion- 
ally the  direct,  but  more  frequently  the  indirect  consequence  of  the 
habitual  employment  of  what  is  considered  a  very  moderate  allow- 
ance.—(See  §§  177,  178.) 

4o.  In  regard  to  all  the  forms  of  Encephalic  disorder  which 
result  from  the  long-continued  action  of  causes  that  impair  its 
nutrition,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  habitual  use  of  Alcoholic 
liquors  has, — in  addition  to  its  direct  action  upon  the  functions  of 
circulation  and  nutrition, — an  important  indirect  agency;  inasmuch 
as,  by  the  temporary  support  it  affords,  it  sustains  the  nervous  ap- 
paratus under  a  degree  of  exertion  that  is  in  the  end  most  injurious 
to  it,  and  renders  the  whole  system  more  tolerant  of  morbific  causes 
of  various  kinds  ;  the  manifestation  of  whose  action,  however,  is 
only  postponed,  and  becomes  more  severe  in  the  end,  in  proportion 
to  the  duration  of  the  agency.  This  indirect  operation  of  alcoholic 
liquors,  however,  will  be  more  fitly  considered  at  a  future  period.—  • 
(§  198.) 

Diseases  of  the  Alimentary  Canal. 

46.  The  disorders  of  the  Nervous  system,  whose  symptoms  are 
among  the  most  obvious  and  characteristic  results  of  Alcoholic  In 
toxication,  having  been  now  considered,  we  proceed  to  examine  the 
influence  of  Alcoholic  liquors  on  the  production  of  diseases  of  the 
Digestive  Apparatus.  This  influence  is  exerted  in  two  ways; — 
first,  by  the  direct  irritating  action  of  the  fluid  upon  the  mucoua 
lining1  of  the  Alimentary  Canal'2;  and  second,  by  the  general  de- 


tJfttcc>tH  lining  —  the.  innermost  coat. 

*  A&witary  canal-  •  >xiv.  ^.V^iack  and  intestines. 


54  E  P  JT  E  C  T  S     O  F     A  L  0  O  II  O  L 

terioration  of  the  nutritive  processes,  resulting  iu  various  ways  from 
the  entrance  of  Alcohol  into  Blood. 

47.  Irritation  and  Inflammation  of  the  Mucous  Membrane  of 
the  Stomach.  —  That  irritation  would  be  produced  in  the  very  vas- 
cular mucous  membrane  of  the  Stomach,  by  the  direct  contact  of 
Alcoholic  liquors,  and  that  this  would  vary  in  its  intensity  with  the 
amount,  concentration,  and  duration  of  the  application  of  the  irri- 
tant, is  precisely  what  we  should  anticipate,  from  what  has  been 
already  shown  by  observation  to  be  the  result  of  the  application  of 
alcohol  to  a  living  membrane.  A  small  quantity  of  alcoholic  liquor, 
diluted  by  the  fluids  already  in  the  stomach,  appears  to  produce  only 
the  first  effect,  namely,  a  quickening  of  the  circulation,  and  a  tem- 
porary exaltation  of  the  functional  activity  of  the  organ,  as  shown 
in  the  increase  of  appetite  and  of  digestive  power.  But  when  a 
larger  quantity  is  introduced,  and  especially  when  successive  doses 
are  taken  so  as  to  keep  up  the  irritation,  or  when  the  alcohol  is  in 
a  state  of  high  concentration,  and  the  stomach  contains  but  little 
other  fluid,  all  the  effects  of  an  irritant  are  produced,  varying  from 
moderate  congestion  l  with  diminished  functional  activity,  to  intense 
congestion  passing  into  inflammation,  and  even  to  a  gangrenous 
state.  The  more  severe  effects,  however,  are  not  often  seen  ^  in 
consequence,  it  may  be  surmised,  of  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
alcohol  has  been  absorbed,  (§  18),  and  the  brevity  of  the  duration 
of  its  contact  with  the  membrane,  shielded  as  this  is  with  its  coat 
of  mucus.  Hence  a  repetition  of  the  dose  seems  more  likely  to 
produce  a  state  of  high  irritation,  or  of  inflammation,  than  any 
single  dose,  unless  this  have  been  too  great  to  be  quickly  absorbed. 

48.  The  morbid  appearances  found  in  the  Stomachs  of  men  or 
animals  killed  by  narcotic2  poisoning,  and  attributable  at  first  sight 
to  the  direct  influence  of  the  irritant,  can  seldom  be  fairly  regarded 
in  that  light;  since  they  are  for  the  most  part  such  as  are  producible 
by  the  Asphyxia,  which  has  been  the  immediate  cause  of  death. 
When  we  find  general  injection  of  the  mucous  membrane,  local 
patches  of  extreme  congestion,  numerous  minute  extravasations,3  or 
hemorrhagic  patches4  of  large  extent,  these  are  more  likely  to  have 
been  the  result  of  the  stagnation  of  the  pulmonary  circulation,  act- 
ing backwards  upon  the  whole  venous  system,  than  to  have  been 
the  immediate  result  of  the  contact  of  alcohol ;  since  appearances 
precisely  similar  are  found  when  death  has  taken  place  from  suffo- 
cation in  other  modes, — e.  g.  in  Criminals  executed  by  hanging.  In 

1  Congestion  —  too  great  fullness  of  the  blood-vessels. 

3  Narcotic  —  having  the  power  to  diminish  sensibility  and  consciousness 
. — opium  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  the  narcotic  poisons. 

3  Extravasations  —  spots  where  blood  has  escaped  from  the  vessels  be- 
neath or  within  the  substance  of  the  membrane. 

*  Hemorrhagic  patches  —  sinf.Iar  extravasations  of  greater  extent. 


ON     THE     HEALTHY     SYSTEM.  55 

the  case  of  animals  poisoned  by  Alcohol,  it  frequently  happens  that 
scarcely  any  positively  morbid  appearances  are  discernible  in  the 
stomach  ;  and  the  departures  from  the  healthy  character  which  are 
noticed  in  the  stomach  of  the  human  subject  after  death  from  alco- 
holic poisoning,  are  most  frequently  such  as  indicate  an  altered  state 
of  its  nutrition,  consequent  upon  habitual  irritation.  Of  these  de- 
partures, a  thickened  state  of  the  mucous  membrane  seems  to  be 
the  most  constant;  the  membrane  being  sometimes  softened  (as 
stated  by  Dr.  Ogston) ;  sometimes  unusually  firm,  corrugated,1  and 
pale  (as  observed  by  Dr.  Peters).  These  last  appearances  seem  to 
have  been  most  common,  when  a  quantity  of  undiluted  Spirits  had 
been  taken  shortly  before  death,  and  to  have  resulted  from  that 
physical  action  exerted  by  them  upon  the  membrane,  to  which 
reference  has  already  been  made  (§  2,  3).  It  sometimes  happens, 
however,  that  after  the  narcotic  effects  of  the  Alcohol  have  passed 
off,  another  set  of  symptoms  appears,  indicative  of  inflammation  of 
the  Alimentary  Canal;  and  if  these  proceed  to  a  fatal  termination 
(as  now  and  then  occurs),  the  usual  appearances  indicative  of  that 
state  are  found  in  the  gastro-intestinal  mucous  membrane.2  In  one 
example  of  this  kind,  cited  by  Dr.  Christison,  the  whole  villous 
coat3  of  the  stomach  was  in  a  gangrenous  state,  the  colon4  was  much 
inflamed,  and  the  small  intestines  red  along  their  whole  length. 

49.  Our  best  information  as  to  the  effect  of  Alcoholic  liquors 
upon  the  condition  of  the  Gastric  mucous  membrane  during  life,  is 
derived  from  the  well-known  observations  of  Dr.  Beaumont  in  the 
tase  of  Alexis  St.  Martin.  This  man  appears  to  have  been  habitu- 
ally temperate  and  healthy ;  but  to  have  occasionally  indulged  in 
excess  both  in  eating  and  drinking,  the  results  of  which  could  be 
seen  by  direct  observation  through  the  fistulous  opening  in  the 
parietes  of  his  stomach.  Thus,  says  Dr.  Beaumont,  under  the  date 
July  28th,  1833,  —  "Stomach  not  healthy,  some  erythema,5  and 
aphthous6  patches  on  the  mucous  surface.  St.  Martin  has  been 
drinking  ardent  spirits  pretty  freely,  for  eight  or  ten  days  past, — 
complains  of  no  pain,  nor  shows  symptoms  of  general  indisposition, 
— says  he  feels  well,  and  has  a  good  appetite.  August  1st, — Inner 
membrane  of  the  Stomach  morbid;  considerable  erythema,  and 
some  aphthous  patches  on  the  exposed  surface ;  secretions  vitiated. 
August  3rd, — Inner  membrane  of  Stomach  unusually  morbid  ;  the 

1  Corrugated  —  thrown  into  folds,  puckered. 

2  Gastro-intestinal  mucous  membrane —  the  lining  membrane  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines. 

3  Villous  coat  —  the  innermost  or  lining  membrane ;    its    surface   being 
supposed  to  resemble  velvet. 

4  Colon  —  the  largest  of  the  intestines. 

*  Erythema  —  superficial  inflammation  like  erysipelas. 

6  Aphthous  patches  —  small  ulcers,  covered  with  a  whitish  matter. 


56  EFFECTS     OF    ALCOHOL 

erythernatous  appearance  more  extensive,  and  spots  more  Ibid  thau 
usual,  from  the  surface  of  which  exuded  small  drops  of  grumous  ' 
blood ;  the  aphthous  patches  larger  and  more  numerous ;  the  mu- 
cous covering  thicker  than  common,  and  the  secretions  much  more 
vitiated.  The  gastric  fluids  extracted  this  morning  were  mixed 
with  a  large  proportion  of  thick,  ropy  mucus,  and  considerable 
muco-purulent2  matter,  slightly  tinged  with  blood,  resembling  the 
discharge  from  the  bowels  in  some  cases  of  chronic  dysentery." 
Now,  it  is  very  important  to  remark,  that  all  this  disorder  was 
proved  by  direct  observation  to  be  actually  existing  in  the  Mucous 
coat  of  the  stomach,  without  any  such  manifestation  of  it  by  general 
or  local  symptoms,  as  would  by  themselves  have  been  thought  in- 
dicative of  its  presence.  —  "For,"  continues  Dr.  Beaumont,  "St. 
Martin  complains  of  no  symptoms  indicating  any  general  derange- 
ment of  the  system,  except  an  uneasy  sensation,  and  a  tenderness 
at  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  and  some  vertigo,  with  dimness  and  yel- 
lowness of  vision  on  stooping  down  and  rising  again  j  has  a  thin 
yellowish  brown  coat  on  his  tongue,  and  his  countenance  rather 
sallow ;  pulse  uniform  and  regular,  appetite  good,  rests  quietly,  and 
sleeps  as  well  as  usual."  By  the  6th  of  August,  the  inner  surface 
of  the  stomach  had  recovered  its  healthy  appearance;  the  patient 
having  in  the  meantime  entirely  abstained  from  all  alcoholic  liquors, 
and  having  been  confined  to  low  diet.  Dr.  Beaumont  further  states 
that  "  diseased  appearances  similar  to  those  mentioned  above,  have 
frequently  presented  themselves  in  the  course  of  my  experiments 
and  observations.  They  have  generally,  but  not  always,  succeeded 
to  some  appreciable  cause.  Improper  indulgence  in  eating  and 
drinking  has  been  the  most  common  precursor  of  these  diseased 
conditions  of  the  stomach.  The  free  use  of  ardent  Spirit*,  Wine, 
Beer,  or  any  intoxicating  liquor,  ichfn  continued  for  some  days, 
has  invariably  produced  these  morbid  changes." 

50.  From  the  precise  concurrence  of  these  Observations  with 
what  Theory  would  lead  us  to  expect,  in  regard  to  the  action  of  Al- 
coholic liquors  on  the  Mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach,  it  is  obvi- 
ous that  we  have  no  right  to  suppose  that  the  peculiar  condition  of 
St.  Martin  gave  him  any  peculiar  liability  to  suffer  in  the  manner 
above  described.  On  the  contrary,  such  disorders  of  the  circula- 
tion, nutrition,  and  secretion  might  be  anticipated  to  occur  in  every 
case ;  and  it  is  only  because  they  are  not  immediately  indicated  by 
pain  and  heat  in  the  stomach,  by  loss  of  appetite,  or  by  general 
febrile  disturbance,  that  they  are  presumed  not  to  exist.  This  pre- 
sumption, however,  has  been  shown  to  be  altogether  fallacious ;  arid 
we  have  adequate  reason  to  believe  that  some  such  condition  must 

1  Grumous  —  clotted,  thick. 

3  Muco-purulent  —  a  mixture  of  mucus  and  matter. 


ON     THE     HEALTHY     S  Y  R  T  E  M  .  57 

bo  the  result  of  every  excess  in  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors,  however 
little  it  may  be  indicated   by  the  local  or  general  symptoms. 

51.  Inflammatory  Gastric  Dyspepsia,. — It  might  be  anticipated, 
then,  that  habitual  excess  would  convert  this  state  of  occasional  and 
transient  disorder,  which  only  requires  rest  and  abstinence  for  its 
cure,  into  one  of  a  more  persistent  and  obstinate  character ;  which, 
by  unfitting  the  stomach  for  the  discharge  of  its  normal  functions, 
would  seriously  impair  the  general  nutritive  operations.  Such  has 
been  shown  by  experience  to  be  the  case ;  a  special  form  of  dys- 
peptic disorder,  termed  Inflammatory  Gastric  Dyspepsia,  being 
well  known  to  practical  men,  as  common  among  those  who  have 
freely  indulged  in  alcoholic  potations.  Of  this  disorder,  the  follow- 
ing are  the  symptoms,  as  enumerated  by  Dr.  Todd  : ' — "  Painful 
digestion,  sense  of  heat,  tenderness,  or  pain  at  the  epigastrium,2  in- 
creased upon  taking  food,  or  on  pressure;  thirst;  tongue  more  or 
less  of  a  bright  red  colour,  sometimes  brownish  red,  sometimes  dry, 
glossy,  and  adhesive;  taste  saltish  or  alkaline,  occasionally  like  that 
of  blood;  bowels  generally  confined;  urine  high-coloured;  skin 
dry,  with  occasionally  profuse,  partial  sweats,  chiefly  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  extensor  muscles;  temperature  of  the  trunk  increased, 
of  the  extremities  diminished,  except  occasionally  in  the  palms  of 
the  hands  and  soles  of  the  feet,  which,  especially  at  night,  are  fre- 
quently hot,  dry,  and  burning;  aggravation  of  the  symptoms  under 
the  use  of  stimulants  or  of  irritating  ingesta."  3  The  various  stages 
and  degrees  of  the  disease  are  characterized  by  various  modifications 
of  these  symptoms,  many  of  them  the  consequences  of  the  disturb- 
ance of  the  nutritive  functions  produced  by  the  disorder  of  the  sto- 
mach ;  but  of  all  such  consequences  it  may  be  remarked,  that  they 
are  probably  aggravated  by  the  previous  disturbance  of  the  nutritive 
and  secretory  operations,  consequent  upon  the  habitual  introduction 
of  alcohol  into  the  blood.  Thus  we  find  a  special  tendency  to  cuta- 
neous eruptions,  such  as  Erysipelas,4  Lichen,5  Erythema,6  Urticaria,7 
Psoriasis,8  and  Pityriasis ; 9  to  sluggish  and  imperfect  action  of  the 
Liver;  to  scantiness  in  the  secretion  of  the  Kidneys;  and  to  de- 
pression of  spirits,  with  inability  for  active  mental  exertion,  passing 
on,  in  the  more  confirmed  states,  to  complete  Hypochondriacs. 
Although  excess  in  eating  may  aid  in  the  production  of  this 

1  Cyclopaedia  of  Practical  Medicine,  Art.  Indigestion. 

2  Epigastrium  —  the  region  of  the  stomach. 

3  Inyesta —  substances  taken  into  the  stomach. 

4  Erysipelas  —  inflammation  of  the  skin. 

4  Lichen  —  an  eruption  upon  the  skin  of  red  pimples. 
8  Erythema  —  superficial  inflammation. 
T  Urticaria  —  the  nettle  rash. 

8  Psoriasis  —  a  disease  of  the  skin  attended  with  patches  of  rough  scales. 
3 Pityriasis  —  a  disease  of  the  skin  characterized  by  irregular  patches  of 
thin  scales. 


58  EFFECTS     OF    ALCOHOL 

wretched  condition,  yet,  as  Dr.  Todd  remarks,  it  is  rather  due  to  the 
stimulating  quality  of  what  is  taken  into  the  stomach,  than  to  its 
quantity ;  and  although  it  may  occasionally  arise  from  the  habitual 
use  of  highly-seasoned  food  without  the  proper  dilution  by  bland 
liquids,  yet  it  is  much  more  frequently  brought  on  by  indulgence  in 
alcoholic  potations;  "it  is  the  dyspepsia  of  the  Dram  Drinker  and 
Opium  Eater,  and  belongs  altogether  more  to  the  Drunkard  than 
to  the  Glutton."  In  the  treatment  of  this  disease,  the  complete 
disuse  of  stimulants  is  found  to  be  of  the  greatest  importance ;  not- 
withstanding that,  in  the  more  chronic  forms  of  it,  a  temporary  alle- 
viation is  sometimes  obtained  from  small  quantities  of  alcoholic 
liquors.1 

52.  Disorders  of  the  Intestinal  Mucous  Membrane. — The  disor- 
dered state  of  the,gastro-intestinal  mucous  membrane2  is  not  limited, 
as  we  have  seen,  to  the  stomach,  and  it  may  extend  itself  along  the 
whole  course  of  the  Alimentary  Canal,  to  parts  with  which  the  Al- 
coholic liquors  themselves  have  not  come  in  contact;  so  as  to  be 
attributable  rather  to  the  general  imperfection  of  the  nutritive  ope- 
rations, than  to  the  local  eifects  of  the  stimulant.     Thus  we  find 
that  habitually  intemperate  persons  are  subject  to  soreness,  redness, 
and  ulceration  of  the  membrane  of  the  nose,  and  of  that  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  intestinal  canal ;  and  hemorrhages 3  from  various  parts 
of  this  membrane,  as  well  as  from  the  mouth  itself,  are  of  no  unfre- 
quent  occurrence, — the  escape  of  blood  being  obviously  dependent 
in  part  on  its  own  insufficient  plasticity,4  and  in  part  upon  the  soft- 
ened condition  of  the  walls  of  the  vessels.     It  is  important  to  bear 
this  in  mind,  as  increasing  the  probability  of  the  same  cause  being 
concerned  in  the  production  of  a  similar  softening  elsewhere ;  as, 
for  example,  in  the  vessels  of  the  Brain. — (See  §41). 

53.  Where,  in  place  of  excessive  indulgence,  what  is  commonly 
considered  a  moderate  use  has  been  made  of  Alcoholic  liquors,  we 
cannot  with  the  same  confidence  attribute  to  it  any  decided  depar- 
ture from  the  healthy  condition  of  the  Stomach ;  and  it  is  certain 
that  the  mucous  membrane  becomes  in  time  so  habituated  to  its 
presence,  that  its  contact  no  longer  produces  the  same  effects  as  it 
does  on  a  membrane  unaccustomed  to  it.     But  we  shall  hereafter 
(§  160—162)  find  reason  to  believe,  that  such  habitual  use  is  not 
without  its  consequences,  although  these  may  be  very  remote ;  the 
continual  over-excitement  of  the  vital  activity  of  the  gastric  mucous 
membrane  being  probably  one  of  the  causes  of  that  premature  loss 

1  See  the  observations  of  Sir  Philip  Crampton  on  this  subject,  in  Dublin 
Hospital  Reports,  vol.  i.  p.  349. 

3  Gastro-intestinal  mucous  membrane  —  inner  or  lining  membrane  of  the 
Stomach  and  intestines. 

3  Hemorrhages  —  discharges  of  blood. 

•  Plasticity  —  consistence,  capacity  to  become  organized. 


ON    THE     HEALTHY     SYSTEM.  59 

of  functional  power,  which  is  observable  in  a  great  number  of  those 
who  have  accustomed  themselves  to  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors. 
This  cause,  however,  will  seldom  act  alone;  being  usually  combined 
with  excess  in  diet,  and  with  "wear  and  tear"  of  the  general  sys- 
tem, as  will  be  shown  in  its  proper  place  ;  so  that  its  operation  is 
very  liable  to  be  overlooked. 

Diseases  of  the. Liver. 

54.  That  habitual  excess  in  the  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  must 
have  a  direct  tendency  to  produce  certain  diseases  of  the  Liver,  will 
be  questioned  by  no  one  who  considers  their  mode  of  introduction 
into  the  system,  and  their  influence  on  the  condition. of  the  blood. 
The  blood  which  returns  from  the  gastric  veins  charged  with  Alco- 
hol, is  immediately  transmitted  through  the  Liver;  and  it  stimulates 
this  gland  for  a  time  to  increased  activity,  one  effect  of  which  is  to 
eliminate  a  portion  of  the  alcohol  from  the  blood, — this  substance, 
according  to  Dr.  Percy's  observations,  being  detectible  in  the  bile 
of  animals  poisotfed  by  alcohol.     Hence  the  Liver,  like  the  stomach, 
is  subject  to  habitual  over-stimulation  from  the  direct  contact" of  alco- 
hol with  its  substance.     But  we  have  seen  that  the  presence  of  alco- 
hol in  the  blood  prevents  it  from  acquiring  its  proper  arterial  charac- 
ter by  passage  through  the  lungs  ;  and  we  shall  hereafter  find  that  it 
causes  the  undue  retention  in  it  of  hydro-carbonaceous  matters,1  which 
ought  to  be  removed  by  the  respiratory  process.     Hence  an  undue 
amount  of  labour  is  thrown  upon  the  Liver, — one  of  the  functions 
of  this  Gland  being,  to  separate  from  the  blood  such  hydro-carbona- 
ceous matters  as  are  not  carried  off  by  the  respiratory  organs ;  and 
this  continual  over-work  must  predispose  it  to  various  disorders. 

55.  Acute  and  Chronic  Inflammation  of  the  Liver.  —  In  tropical 
climates  acute  inflammatory  diseases  of  the  Liver  are  among  the 
most  common  of  these  disorders;  and  they  are  distinctly  traceable, 
in  a  large  proportion   of  cases,  to  that  excess  both  in  eating  and 
drinking,   to  which  Europeans  are  unfortunately  but  too  prone; 
being  rare  among  the  Natives,  and  almost  equally  rare  among  the 
Europeans  who  adopt  the  native  manner  of  living.     In  this  country 
such  acute  diseases  are  comparatively  rare ;  but  there  are  certain 
remote  consequences  which  are  no  less  clearly  traceable  to  chronic 
inflammation  and  degeneration,  resulting  from  the  excessive  use  of 
fermented  liquors,  especially  when  these  are  taken  in  the  form   of 
distilled  spirits. — The  following  is  the  account  ef  the  state  of  the 
Liver  given  by  Dr.  Peters  (loc.  cit.),  as  presented  in  the  seventy 
cases  which  he  had  an  opportunity  of  examining.      "In  '  moderate 
drinkers/  the  liver  was  generally  found  to  be  somewhat  larger  than 

1  Hydro-carbonaceous   matters  —  substances  composed  of  hydrogen    ami 
tarbon. 


60  EFFECTS     OF     ALCOHOL 

usual,  its  texture  softened,  and  its  outer  surface  spotted,  with  patches 
of  fatty  infiltration  extending  two  or  three  lines  into  the  pareneby- 
matous l  substance ;  the  rest  of  the  viscus  retaining  its  natural 
colour,  and  its  edges  their  normal  sharpness.  In  those  who  had 
been  more  addicted  to  the  use  of  spirits,  the  liver  was  still  larger,  its 
edges  were  more  obtuse,  and  the  patches  of  fat  on  its  surface  weie 
larger  and  more  numerous.  In  old  drunkards  the  liver  was  very 
large,  weighing  at  least  six  ,or  eight  pounds,  often  from  ten  to 
twelve  ;  the  edges  were  very  thick  and  much  rounded ;  the  paren- 
chyma2 almost  white  with  fat,  soft,  fragile,  and  the  peritoneal  cover- 
ing could  be  torn  off  with  ease."  It  is  evident  that  in  all  these  cases, 
the  Liver  was  the  subject  of  various  degrees  of  fatty  degeneration, 
which  takes  place,  on  the  one  hand,  as  the  result  of  deficient  func- 
tional activity  of  the  Grland,  whilst  on  the  other  it  is  indicative  of  an 
excess  of  fatty  matter  in  the  system. 

56.  The  peculiar  conditions  of  the  Liver  known  as  "  granular 
liver,"  and  "  hob-nailed* liver,"  or  "gin  liver,"  were  comparatively 
rare  in  Dr.  Peters's  experience,  being  observed  orriy  in  four  or  five 
cases;  but  they  seem  to  be  much  more  common  in  this  country; 
and  its  greater  prevalence  may  possibly  be  due  to  a  difference  in  the 
character  of  the  spirit  usually  employed  by  drinkers  among  the 
lower  classes,  Gin  being  here  the  most  common,  Rum  and  Brandy 
in  the  United  States.  These  conditions  appear  to  be  dependent 
upon  atrophy*  of  the  proper  hepatic  substance,  with  hypertrophy* 
of  the  connecting  areolar  tissue;  the -former  being  apparently  the 
result  of  the  exhaustion  of  the  functional  power  of  the  liver  by  over- 
excitement;  and  the  latter  to  continual  attacks  of  chronic  inflamma- 
tion, which  produce  the  false  membranes,  adhesions,  puckerings,&c., 
that  give  rise  to  tbe  second  of  the  designations  just  cited.  Between 
the  state  of  contraction  (in  which  the  Liver  is  frequently  not  more 
than  half  its  usual  size),  and  the  state  of  enlargement  just  described, 
there  is  not  that  opposition  which  might  at  first  sight  appear;  for  in 
both  is  there  diminished  functional  and  nutritive  activity  of  the 
proper  substance  of  the  gland;  and  the  state  of  enlargement,  which 
is  simply  dependent  upon  the  accumulation  of  fatty  matter,  not  un- 
frequently  gives  place  to  one  of  contraction.  In  fact,  it  would  not 
seem  improbable  that  each  state  may  have  a  relation  to  the  general 
disposition  to  the  development  of  fat,  in  the  individual ;  for  whilst 
ir.  many  habitual  drunkards  there  is  a  great  tendency  to  the  produc- 
tion of  fat,  and  to  its  deposition  in  various  parts  of  the  body  (§  61), 
I  here  is  an  equal  tendency  in  others  to  a  leanness  which  no  fatten- 

1  Parenchymatous  substance  —  the  substance  or  tissue  of  the  gland. 
1  Parenchyma  —  see  the  preceding  note. 
•  Atrophy  —  a  wasting  away,  diminution  of  bulk. 
Hypertrophy  —  excessive  growth,  augmentation  of  bulk. 


ON  THE  HEALTHY  SYSTEM.  61 

ing  process  will  overcome. — Certain  it  is,  however,  that  the  habitual 
use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  has  a  tendency  first  to  excite  and  then  to 
diminish  the  functional  activity  of  the  Liver;  and  thus  predisposes 
in  the  first  instance  to  inflammatory  diseases  of  the  organ,  whilst  its 
more  remote  operation  is  to  induce  atrophy  or  degeneration.  This 
will  be  especially  the  case  in  tropical  climates ;  where  several  causes 
concur  (as  will  be  shown  hereafter)  to  augment  the  injurious  influ- 
ence of  Alcohol  upon  the  Liver,  and  consequently  to  increase  the 
amount  and  severity  of  the  diseases  of  that  organ  induced  by  its  habi- 
tual use. — Of  course,  every  disturbance  of  the^unction  of  the  Liver 
must  be  an  additional  source  of  disorder  in  the  digestive  operations, 
in  which  the  action  of  this  gland  has  so  important  a  share. 

Diseases  of  the  Kidneys. 

57.  We  have  seen  that  a  special  determination  of  blood  to  the 
Kidneys  takes  place  as  one  of  the  results  of  the  reception  of  Al- 
coholic liquors  into  the  blood  \  and  these  organs  are  thereby  excited 
to  augmented  action,  one  of  the  purposes  of  which  would  seem  to 
be  the  removal  of  the  alcohol  from  the  current  of  the  circulation. 
As  the  blood  of  the  Kidneys  is  derived  from  the  arterial  system, 
in  which  the  alcohol  becomes  diluted  by  the  whole  mass  of  san- 
guineous fluid ;  and  as  the  alteration  in  the  constituents  of  the 
blood  which  it  tends  to  produce,  has  less  relation  to  the  function  of 
the  kidneys  than  to  that  of  the  liver;  it  might  be  expected  that 
excess  in  alcoholic  liquors  should  not  have  the  same  tendency  to 
produce  acute  inflamm.atory  attacks  in  this  organ  as  in  the  other, 
although  it  may  act  as  the  exciting  cause  of  such  attacks  (as  ap- 
pears to  be  frequently  the  case),  when  the  predisposition  has  been 
established  by  other  agencies.  But  we  should  expect  that  the 
habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  in  excess  would  have  a  special 
tendency  to  produce  a  state  of  chronic  irritation,  passing  into 
chronic  inflammation,  with  various  consequent  alterations  in  the 
structure,  and  deterioration  in  the  function,  of  the  Kidneys. — Such 
we  have  every  reason  to  believe  to  be  the  usual  origin  of  that  mor 
bid  condition  commonly  known  as  Bright' s  Disease,  or  Granular 
Degeneration  of  the  Kidneys,  which  is  now  generally  considered 
by  Pathologists  as  a  result  of  chronic  inflammation  and  atrophy  of 
the  proper  substance  of  the  Kidney,  with  deposits  of  fatty,  albu- 
minous, or  other  unorganizable  matters,  —  a  state,  in  fact,  very 
closely  resembling  the  degenerated  conditions  of  the  Liver  already 
described.  Now  of  this  disease  Dr.  Christison  states  that  from 
three-fourths  to  four-fifths  of  the  cases  which  he  met  with  in  Edin- 
burgh, were  in  persons  who  were  habitual  drunkards,  or  who,  with- 
out deserving  this  appellation,  were  in  the  constant  habit  of  using 
ardent  spirits  several  times  in  the  course  of  the  day;  and  the  ex- 
perience of  English  Hospital  practice  is  (so  far  as  the  writer  has 


62  EFFECTS    OP    ALCOHOL 

been  able  to  ascertain)  precisely  similar.  The  disease  is  very  rarely 
met  with  in  the  private  practice  of  those,  whose  patients  are  of  a 
class  not  given  to  excessive  spirituous  potations.  Here,  too,  it 
would  seem  as  if  the  use  of  malt  spirit  (Gin  or  Whiskey)  gives  a 
greater  predisposition  to  the  disease,  than  that  of  Rum  or  Brandy  j 
the  former  having  a  more  diuretic  effect  than  the  latter,  that  is, 
producing  a  greater  temporary  activity  in  the  kidneys,  and  having 
a  greater  tendency  to  bring  about  a  state  of  chronic  irritation. 

58.  But  we  are  not  to  suppose  that,  if  this  severe  form  of  renal 
disease  be  not  developed,  the  Kidneys  escape  altogether  free.     We 
should  expect  that  the  consequences  of  long-continued  and  habitual 
excitement  would  manifest  themselves  in  subsequent  impairment  of 
functional  power,  even  if  no  obvious  structural  disease  be  engen- 
dered ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  such  is  the  case,  since  we 
find  that  persons  advanced  in  life,  who  have  habitually  indulged 
freely,  even  if  not  excessively,  in  Alcoholic  liquors,  are  extremely 
apt  to  suffer  from  Gout,  Rheumatism,  and  other  disorders,  which 
mainly  depend  upon  the  insufficient  elimination  of  such    morbid 
matters  from  the  blood,  as  ought  to  be  carried  forth  through  this 
channel  (§  66).     Excesses  in  diet,  which,  at  an  early  period  of 
life,  are  counteracted  by  the  activity  of  the  excretory  apparatus, 
are  no  longer  thus  prevented  from  giving  rise  to  an  accumulation 
of  morbific1  products  in  the  blood,  when  the  Kidneys  begin  to  fail 
in  the  performance  of  their  duty;  and  although  we  may  not  be 
able  with  positive  certainty  to  attribute  this  failure  to  free  indul- 
gence in  alcoholic  liquors,  yet  it  cannot  be  reasonably  questioned 
that  such  habits  must  tend  to  produce  it, — since  we  find  that  over- 
excitement  of  any  organ  is  regularly  followed,  sooner  or  later,  by 
depression  of  its  functional  power,  and  have  seen  that  the  continual 
stimulation   of  the   Kidney  by  alcohol  has  a  special  tendency  to 
produce  perverted  nutrition,  and  thus  to  render  it  entirely  unfit  for 
the  performance  of  its  duties. 

Diseases  of  the  Skin. 

59.  The  determination  of  blood  to  the   Skin,  which  has  been 
noticed  as  one  of  the  results  of  the  ingestion  of  Alcoholic  liquors, 
has  a  tendency,  when  frequently  repeated,  to  produce  various  disor- 
ders in  its  nutrition,  chiefly  those  resulting  from  congestion  or  in- 
flammation of  its  several  tissues.     Such  disorders  show  themselves 
especially  in  the  skin  of  the  face ;  and  this  for  two  reasons, — be- 
cause, in  the  first  place,  the  face  partakes  in  the  general  determina- 
tion of  blood  towards  the  head,  so  that  it  becomes   more  flushed 
than  any  other  part  of  the  surface ;  and  also  because  the  exposure 
of  this  part  of  the  cutaneous  surface  disposes  it  to  be  more  affected 

1  Morbific —  disease-producing. 


ON     THE     HEAL  THY     SYSTEM.  63 

than  that  of  the  body  and  limbs  by  external  cold,  which  will  al- 
ways tend,  by  lowering  the  vital  activity  of  any  tissue,  to  increase 
the  evils  resulting  from  too  copious  a  determination  of  blood 
towards  it.  Hence  we  find  the  skin  of  the  face  especially  disposed 
to  exhibit  those  Carbuncles,  Boils,  &c.,  which  may  be  considered,  in 
a  large  proportion  of  cases,  as  the  direct  result  of  habitual  intem- 
perance ;  it  is  also  the  part  in  which  the  Erysipelatous  attacks,  so 
common  among  the  intemperate,  most  frequently  commence,  when 
they  are  not  immediately  excited  by  some  injury  elsewhere;  and  it 
is  on  the  face,  too,  that  we  most  frequently  meet  with  various  forms 
of  Acne,  of  which  the  Acne  rosacea  l  is,  in  a  very  large  proportion 
of  cases,  directly  attributable  to  intemperate  habits.  We  have  al- 
ready noticed  other  diseases  of  the  Skin  (§  51),  which  seem  to  be 
rather  consequent  upon  the  disorder  of  the  digestive  apparatus  in- 
duced by  the  habitual  free  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors,  than  due  to  the 
direct  agency  of  the  alcohol  upon  its  tissue.  There  is  a  disease, 
however,  noticed  by  Dr.  Darwin  under  the  name  of  Psora  Ebrio- 
rum,*  which  may  be  attributed  with  great  probability  to  a  chronic 
though  slight  perversion  of  the  nutritive  operations  of  the  skin,  in 
consequence  of  the  presence  of  alcohol  in  the  blood.  Of  this  dis- 
ease Dr.  Darwin  says  :  "  Elderly  people  who  have  been  much  ad- 
dicted to  spirituous  drinks,  as  beer,  wine,  or  alcohol,  are  liable  to 
an  -eruption  all  over  their  bodies,  which  is  attended  with  very 
afflicting  itching,  and  which  they  probably  propagate  from  one  part 
of  their  bodies  to  another,  with  their  own  nails,  by  scratching  them- 
selves." Dr.  Macnish  states  that  he  has  himself  seen  many  cases 
of  this  disease.3  Most  other  cutaneous4  disorders,  which  are  less 
directly  traceable  to  intemperate  habits,  are  greatly  aggravated  by 
them  ;  so  that  strict  abstinence  from  fermented  liquors  is  an  almost 
invariable  rule  in  the  treatment  of  them,  unless  the  use  of  these 
in  small  quantities  should  be  thought  requisite  to  improve  the  state 
of  the  digestive  function. 

General  Disorders  of  Nutrition. 

60.  Having  thus  considered  the  principal  forms  of  disease  which 
the  intemperate  employment  of  Alcoholic  liquor  has  a  tendency  to 
induce  in  the  several  parts  of  the  Excretory  apparatus,  to  which 
they  seem  to  give  a  special  determination,  we  have  now  to  consider 
those  General  Disorders  of  Nutrition,  which  are  traceable  to  the 
same  cause,  whtch  manifest  themselves  either  as  substantive  dis- 
eases, as  modifying  the  course  of  other  diseases,  or  as  giving  a 
special  liability  to  the  action  of  other  morbific  causes.  — We  have 

1  Acne  rosacea  —  red  pimples  or  tubercles  upon  the  nose  and  face. 

*  Psora  eb riorum  —  the  drunkard's  itch. 
'Anatomy  of  Drunkenness,  p.  178. 

*  Cutaneous  —  appertaining  to  the  skin. 


64  EFFECTS     OF    ALCOHOL 

already  spoken  of  the  deteriorating  effect  of  the  admixture  of  Alco- 
hol with  the  Blood;  how  it  lowers  the  plasticity  of  the  fibrine, 
tends  to  empty  the  red  corpuscles,  and  in  various  ways  impedes  the 
process  of  aeration  ;  and  another  less  direct  but  not  less  important 
source  of  deterioration,  is  to  be  found  in  the  imperfect  elimination l 
of  the  constituents  of  the  Bile  and  Urine,  which  must  be  the  con- 
sequence of  functional  inactivity,  still  more  of  structural  degene- 
ration,2 of  the  Liver  and  Kidneys.  Hence  it  would  seem  impos- 
sible that  by  such  a  pabulum  the  formation  of  the  solid  tissues  can 
be  normally  sustained;  and  we  should  expect  to  find  that  the 
nutritive  processes  are  not  performed  with  the  same  energy  and 
completeness  in  the  habitually  intemperate,  that  they  are  in  the 
habitually  abstinent.  Notwithstanding  some  appearances  to  the 
contrary,  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  such  is  the  case. 
Although  a  high  degree  of  bodily  vigour  seems  to  be  exhibited  by 
certain  classes  of  men,  who  consume  large  quantities  of  fermented 
liquors,  yet  this  is  extremely  deceptive,  as  the  facts  to  be  presently 
stated  will  clearly  indicate ;  and  the  general  result  is  evidently  on 
the  other  side. 

61.  Tendency  to  the  Deposition  of  Fat.  —  The  immediate  effects 
of  Alcoholic  liquors  upon  the  general  appearance  of  the  body, 
especially  as  regards  the  deposition  of  fat,  vary  with  their  nature, 
and  with  the  circumstances  under  which  they  are  habitually  used. 
Thus  it  is  generally  to  be  noticed  that  those  who  indulge  largely  in 
malt  liquors  become  fat,  and  often  exceedingly  corpulent ;  the  large 
consumers  of  wine  commonly  share  the  same  tendency ;  but  the 
spirit-drinker  is  more  commonly  lean  and  even  emaciated.  This 
difference  may  partly  depend  upon  the  constitution  of  the  liquors  ; 
thus  ale,  beer,  &c.,  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  saccharine  3 
matter,  which  is  either  consumed  in  respiration",  leaving  the  fatty 
matters  of  the  blood  to  be  deposited  as  fat,  or  is  itself  converted 
into  fat;  in  wine,  again,  there  is  more  or  less  of  solid  matter, 
which  furnishes  materials  for  combustion ;  whilst  in  distilled  spirits, 
there  is  scarcely  anything  save  the  alcohol.  But  it  also  depends  in 
part  upon  the  amount  of  solid  food  habitually  taken  with  the 
drink;  thus  the  beer-drinker,  if  he  be  leading  a  life  of  great 
muscular  exertion,  may  find  his  appetite  but  little  impaired  by  his 
excess;  the  wine-drinker  also  usually  feeds  high;  whilst  the  spirit- 
drinker,  especially  among  the  poorer  classes,  takes  his  dram  instead 
of  solid  food,  for  which  he  has  neither  appetite  nor  pecuniary 
means.  The  corpulence  of  the  beer  and  wine-drinker,  however, 
seldom  continues  to  old  age;  and  the  parts  which  first  begin  to 
shrink  are  the  legs,  after  which  the  shoulders  generally  give  way, 

1  Elimination  —  separation,  removal. 

3  Structural  degeneration  —  diseased  state  of  the  substance  of  the  organ. 

*  Saccharine  —  having  the  sweetness  and  characters  of  sugar. 


ON     THE     HEALTHY     SYSTEM.  65 

and  the  whole  body  becomes  loose,  flabby,  and  inelastic,  the  abdo- 
men alone  retaining  its  protuberance,  in  consequence  of  the  large 
deposition  of  fat  in  the  omentum,'  which  is  rarely  absorbed.  Such 
a  deposition  of  fat  is  almost  invariably  found  in  the  omentum  of 
confirmed  spirit-drinkers,2  notwithstanding  its  absence  elsewhere. 

62.  A  general  corpulence  of  the  body,  however,  can  by  no  means 
be  admitted  as  an  indication  of  healthy  nutrition;  indeed  it  must 
be  regarded  as  very  much  the  reverse.     No  animal  in  a  state  of 
nature  exhibits  any  considerable  deposit  of  fat,  except  for  some 
special  purpose  (as  in  the  case  of  Cetacea3  and  other  warm-blooded 
animals  inhabiting  the  water,  where  the  coating  of  fat  serves  as  a 
non-conductor;  or  in  the  case  of  hybernating  mammals,4  as  also 
of  many  birds,  whose  autumnal  accumulation  of  fat  is  destined  to 
make  up  for  the  deprivation  or  deficiency  of  food  in  the  winter)  : 
and  when  by  a  change  of  habits  the  deposition  of  fat  is  artificially 
promoted,  it    is    obvious    that    the    musculai  vigour  and    general 
"  hardiness"  of  the  system  are  much  impaired,  the  animal  becoming 
liable  to  many  disorders  from  which  it  was  previously  exempt,  and 
requiring  much  more  careful  treatment  to  keep  it  in  good  condition. 
When,  indeed,  we  find  a  tendency  to  the  deposition  of  fat,  not  in 
addition  to,  but  instead  of,  the  normal  tissues,  the  case  is  one  of 
"  fatty  degeneration/'  and  must  be  regarded  as  a  positive  disease, 
— involving  as  it  does,  a  general  functionary  inactivity.5 

63.  Diminished  Power  of  Sustaining  Injuries    by  Disease  or 
Accident. — The  classes  of  men  among  whom  there  is  an  appearance 
!)f  remarkable  bodily  vigour,  notwithstanding  habitual  excess  in  the 
use  of  Alcoholic  liquors,  are  those  who  are  continually  undergoing 
great  muscular  exertion,  and  who  not  only  drink  largely,  but  eat 
heartily.  ,  Of  this  class,  the  London   Coal-heavers,  Ballasters,  and 
Brewers'  Draymen  are  remarkable  examples ;  many  of  them  drink 
from  two  to  three  gallons  of  porter  daily,  and  even  spirits  besides , 

1  Omentum — a  fatty  membrane  covering  the  bowels  in  front. 

2  Dr.  Peters,  loc.  cit. 

3  Cetacea — the  whale  kind. 

4  HyberKaiing  —  animals  that  sleep  or  become  torpid  during  the  winter, 
Mammals — animals  that  suckle  their  young. 

5  The  following  interesting  case  is  recorded  by  Dr.  Robertson  (Treatise 
•>n  Diet,  4th  Edition,  vol.  i.  p.  272).     The  subject  of  it  was  a  very  young 
man,  who  died  thus  early  from  the  intemperate  use  of  spirits.    For  several 
months  before  his  death,  he  had  been  unable  to  eat  more  than  a  very  small 
quantity  of  food,  and  his  powers  were  almost  exclusively  maintained  by 
frequent    dram-drinking.     The  immediate   cause    of   death  was  cerebral 
"  r:unollissement  (softening) ;"  but  although  the  body  was  much  attenuated, 
the  muscular  fibre  of  the  system  much  wasted,  and  the  sub-cutaneous  fat 
of  the  extremities  had  almost  disappeared,  on  cutting  through  the  abdomi- 
nal walls  to  examine  the  condition  of  the  liver,  at  least  three  times  the 
usual  thickness  of  fat  had  to  be  divided. 

6* 


66  EFFECTS     OP     ALCOHOL 

they  are  for  the  most  part  large,  gross,  unwieldy  men,  and  are  capa- 
ble of  great  bodily  exertion  j — so  long,  at  least,  as  their  labour  is 
carried  on  in  the  open  air.1  But  it  does  not  hence  follow  that  they 
are. in  a  condition  of  real  vigour;  for  the  constitutions  of  such  men 
break  down  before  they  are  far  advanced  in  years,  even  if  they  do 
not  earlier  fall  victims  (as  a  large  proportion  of  them  do)  to  the 
results  of  disease  or  injury  which  were  at  first  apparently  of  the 
most  trifling  character.  It  is  well  known  to  those  who  have  ob- 
served the  practice  of  the  London  Hospitals,  that  when  such  men 
suffer  from  inflammatory  attacks,  or  from  local  injuries,  these  are 
peculiarly  disposed  to  run  on  to  a  fatal  termination  ;  in  consequence,  it 
is  evident,  of  the  deficient  plasticity 2  of  the  blood,  of  the  low  assimi- 
lative power  of  the  solids,  and  of  the  general  depression  of  the  whole 
vital  energy,  resulting  from  habitual  over-excitement.  The  want  of 
plasticity  of  the  blood  gives  to  the  inflammatory  processes  an  asthenic* 
instead  of  a  athenic4  character;  there  is  no  limitation  by  plastic  effu- 
sion,5 but  they  spread  far  and  wide  through  the  tissues ;  depletion 
cannot  be  borne ;  and  the  only  hope  of  success  lies  in  the  use  of 
opium  and  stimulants  with  nutritious  diet,  to  sustain  so  far  as  possi- 
ble the  prostrated  energy.  Thus  we  see  that  in  such  men  the  slight- 
est scratch  or  bruise  will  not  unfrequently  give  rise  to  a  fatal  attack 
of  Erysipelas;  and  that  internal  organs  affected  with  inflammation 
rapidly  become  infiltrated  with  pus,6  or  pass  into  a  gangrenous7 
state.  Hence  the  Surgeon  is  very  unwilling  to  perform  severe  ope- 
rations upon  them,  knowing  that  their  chance  of  recovery  is  but 
small. — The  condition  of  these  men  in  regard  to  recovery  from  inju- 
ries, is  in  remarkable  contrast  to  that  of  men  who  have  been 
"trained"  to  pugilistic  encounters;  the  latter  having  been  brought 
to  a  condition  of  the  highest  possible  health,  by  active  exercise, 
abundance  of  nutritious  food,  occasional  mild  purgation,  and  either 
entire  abstinence  from  fermented  liquors,  or  by  the  very  sparing  use 
of  them.  Men  thus  "trained"  recover  with  remarkable  rapidity 
from  the  severe  bruises  which  they  are  liable  to  receive. 

64.  Although  there  are  now  few  men  who  habitually  take  wine 
to  a  corresponding  extent,  or  who  maintain  by  active  exercise  in  the 
open  air  any  thing  like  the  same  muscular  vigour,  yet  such  exam- 
ples are  occasionally  met  with  among  the  fox-hunting  country 

1  See  Appendix  A. 

3  Plasticity  —  adhesiveness,  disposition  to  become  organized. 

3  Asthenic  —  wanting  strength  ;  attended  with  debility. 

4  Sthenic  —  vigorous  ;  unattended  with  debility. 

*  Plastic  effusion  —  a  separation  from  the  blood  of  an  adhesive  substance, 
which,  by  uniting  together  the  parts  surrounding  the  inflammation,  pre- 
vents its  spreading. 

8 Pus-- matter  produced  by  ulceration  or  in  a  certain  stage  of  inflarn 
matioiv. 

1  Gangrenous  —  mortified  ;  dead  and  decomposed. 


ON     THE     HEALTHY     SYSTEM.  67 

squires,  who  spend  their  whole  days  on  horseback,  and  pass  their 
evenings  in  drinking  port  wine.  Of  these,  also,  the  same  remark 
may  be  made ;  that  notwithstanding  their  appearance  of  vigour, 
they  are  bad  subjects  for  medical  or  surgical  treatment,  owing  to  the 
imperfect  condition  of  their  nutritive  functions.1  Among  the  spirit- 
drinkers  of  our  large  towns,  it  is  notorious  that  the  nutritive  and 
reparative  powers  are  low ;  and  of  this  fact  we  have  a  remarkable 
illustration,  in  the  frequency,  among  the  intemperate,  of  a  certain 
form  of  phagedenic  2  ulceration,  whose  origin  is  sufficiently  indicated 
by  the  term  "  Geneva-ulcer,"  by  which  it  is  commonly  known  at 
Guy's  and  other  Metropolitan  Hospitals.  This  ulcer,  usually  com- 
mencing on  the  leg,  begins  as  a  red,  angry,  and  painful  spot,  which 
passes  into  an  open  sore ;  and  this  increases  rapidly,  both  in  depth 
and  breadth,  so  as  even  to  involve  the  whole  surface  of  the  calf, 
laying  bare  the  muscles,  tendons  and  nerves.  It  is  not  confined, 
however,  to  gin-drinkers,  but  is  occasionally  met  with  in  the  bloated, 
plethoric,  red-faced  wine-bibber. 

65.  Liability  to  Epidemic  Diseases.  —  Another  most  important 
indication  of  the  disordered  state  of  Nutrition,  consequent  upon 
habitual  excess  in  the  use  of  intoxicating  liquors,  is  the  liability  of 
the  intemperate  to  suffer  from  various  other  morbific  causes,3  espe- 
cially those  *of  an  Epidemic  or  Pestilential  nature.  On  this  last 
point,  there  is,  the  writer  believes,  no  difference  of  opinion  amongst 
Medical  Practitioners  in  any  part  of  the  world ;  all  being  agreed  that 
the  habitual  drunkard  is  far  more  likely  to  suffer  from  such  agen- 
cies, than  the  habitually  sober  or  temperate  man.  Whether  habi- 
tual abstinence  is  still  safer  than  habitual  moderation,  is  a  point 
which  cannot  be  so  easily  ascertained ;  some  considerations  on  this 
subject,  however,  will  be  offered  hereafter  (§  144-150).  The  pecu- 
liar liability  of  the  habitually  intemperate  to  suffer  from  the  Cholera- 
poison,  is  well  known.  The  following  circumstance,  which  occurred 
during  the  former  epidemic  of  Cholera,  is  very  significant  on  this 
point;  especially  showing  that  the  state  of  depression  which  follows 
excitement  is  the  one  in  which  the  system  is  most  readily  affected. 
The  nurses  in  the  Cholera  Hospital  at  Manchester  were  at  first 
worked  six  hours,  and  allowed  to  go  home  the  other  six ;  and  the  mor- 
tality was  so  great  amongst  them,  that  there  were  fears  of  the  failure 
of  the  supply.  It  was  found,  however,  that  they  were  much  given 
to  Alcoholic  potations  (with  the  idea,  probably,  of  increasing  their 
power  of  resisting  the  malady)  during  their  leisure  hours ;  and  they 
were  therefore  confined  to  the  Hospital,  and  debarred  from  obtaining 
more  than  a  small  allowance  of  alcoholic  drink ;  after  which  not  a 

1  Nutritive  functions — functions  concerned  in  building  up  the  solid  part* 
of  the  body,  and  in  repairing  the  waste  constantly  taking  place  in  them. 
3  Phagedenic —  spreading,  corroding,  eating  in. 
8  Morbific  causes —  causes  producing  diseabe. 


08  EFFECTS     OP     ALCOHOL 

single  fresh  case  occurred  among  them.  During  the  present  epi- 
demic, the  writer  has  learned  from  various  sources  that  a  considera- 
ble proportion  of  those,  in  whom  the  liability  to  the  disease  was  not 
evidently  produced  by  the  condition  of  the  locality  in  which  they 
resided,  might  be  considered  as  deriving  a  predisposition  to  it  from 
habitual  Intemperance ;  —  many  establishments  having  lost  those 
men,  and  those  only,  who  had  been  accustomed  to  free  indulgence 
in  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors.  The  general  connection  between  the 
intemperate  habits  of  a  population,  and  its  high  rate  of  mortality 
from  various  causes,  will  be  shown  hereafter;  and  a  high  rate  of 
mortality  is  always  indicative  of  a  large  amount  of  sickness,  although 
the  ratio  between  the  two  is  by  no  means  constant. 

66.  Gout  and  Rheumatism.  —  Among  the  general  disorders  of 
nutrition,  to  which  the  intemperate  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  certainly 
predisposes,  although  it  may  not  of  itself  cause  them,  are  Gout  and 
Rheumatism.  The  former  is  most  common  among  those  who  have 
been  accustomed  both  to  eat  and  to  drink  freely ;  and  it  is  favoured 
by  such  a  use  of  alcoholic  liquors,  as  stimulates  the  stomach  to  digest 
more  azotized '  aliment  than  the  system  can  appropriate.  This  may 
be  regarded  as  the  fundamental  cause  of  the  disease,  when  it  occurs 
in  its  sthenic  form.  Of  the  ulterior  stages  of  it,  we  yet  know  too 
little  to  enable  us  to  trace  with  certainty  the  effect  of  'alcohol  upon 
each  of  them;  but  this  much  is  pretty  certain,  —  that  an  impaired 
condition  of  the  nutritive  operations  will  be  favourable  to  the  pro- 
duction of  the  materies  morbi,2  whatever  be  its  nature ; — that  this 
will  be  further  promoted  by  any  impediment  to  the  due  oxidation  of 
the  constituents  of  the  blood,  such  as  the  admixture  of  Alcohol  has 
been  shown  to  occasion ;  and  that  the  elimination  of  this  morbid 
matter  will  be  obstructed  by  that  torpid  condition  of  the  Liver  and 
Kidneys,  to  which  these  organs  are  especially  liable  in  those  who 
habitually  over-excited  them  in  earlier  life  (§  58).  In  the  produc- 
tion of  Rheumatism,  also,  we  may  clearly  trace  the  aggravating  in- 
fluence of  habitual  excess  in  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors,  especially 
if  the  materies  morbi2  be,  as  many  suppose,  Lactic  Acid,3  or  one  of 
its  compounds.  For  whilst  the  disordered  condition  of  the  assimila- 
tive and  nutritive  operations  will  give  a  special  tendency  to  the  pro- 
duction of  this  substance,  the  impediment  to  its  oxjgenation4  pre- 
sented by  the  presence  of  alcohol  in  the  blood  will  cause  it  to  be 
retained  and  to  accumulate  there,  instead  of  being  burned  oif  (which 
it  ought  to  be,  as  fast  as  formed)  and  escaping  from  the  lungs  in  the 
condition  of  carbonic  acid  and  water.5  Here,  again,  the  torpor  of 

Azotized  —  containing  nitrogen,  as  animal  flesh. 

Materies  morbi  —  the  matter  or  material  causing  disease. 

Lactic  acid  —  an  acid  obtained  from  milk. 

Oxygenation —  being  supplied  with  oxygen. 

This  idea  of  the  influence  of  alcohol  in  conducing  to  the  retention  of 


ON    THE    HEALTHY     SYSTEM.  69 

the  Liver  and  Kidneys,  and  the  disordered  action  of  the  Skin,  in 
the  habitually  intemperate,  will  present  an  additional  obstacle  to  the 
proper  elimination^ of  the  morbific  matter;  and  in  Rheumatism,  as 
in  Gout,  the  intensity  of  the  inflammation  can  scarcely  but  be  aug- 
mented by  the  diathesis  '  induced  by  the  habitual  presence  of  alco- 
hol in  the  blood. — All  these  predictions  are  verified  by  the  experi- 
ence of  every  practical  man. 

67.  Diseases  of  the  Heart  and  Arteries.. — Closely  connected  with 
the  gouty  and  rheumatic  diatheses  are  Diseases  of  the  Heart  and 
Arteries  ;  of  which  some  obviously  arise  out  of  these  constitutional 
states,  and  are  thus  indirectly  favoured  by  the  abuse  of  Alcoholic 
liquors;  whilst  others  seem  to  be  more  directly  dependent  upon  the 
introduction  of  alcohol  into  the  blood.     The  continual  but  irregular 
excitement  of  the  contractile  action  of  the  heart  and  arteries,  which 
is  the  result  of  habitual  use  of  stimulants,  must  of  itself  predis- 
pose their  tissues  to  disease ;  and  this  predisposition  will  of  course 
be  increased  by  the  contact  of  blood  charged  with  alcohol  with  their 
lining  membrane,  as  well  as  by  the  general  disordered  condition  of 
the  nutritive  operations.     Now  attacks  of  acute  Arteritis  '  seem  not 
unfrequently  traceable    to   alcoholic   intoxication;    and  it   cannot 
therefore,  be  regarded  as  improbable,  that  those  more  chronic  dis- 
orders of  their  walls,  which  give  rise  to  Aneurism,2  softening,  fatty 
degeneration,  and  other  structural  changes,  and  which  thereby  pre- 
dispose to  hemorrhage,  should  be  favoured,  if  not  absolutely  pro- 
duced, by  the    habitual   presence    of  alcohol   in   the   circulating 
current.     Accordingly  we  find  the  intemperate    use    of  alcoholic 
liquors  specified  by  authors  on  the  Diseases  of  Arteries,  as  among 
the  most  important  of  their  predisposing  causes. 

68.  Spontaneous    Combustion.  —  Although     the     phenomenon 
termed  "  Spontaneous  Combustion"  of  the  Human  body  is  one  of 
such  rarity,  that  it  might  seem  scarcely  to  deserve  to  be  ranked  among 
the  ordinary  results  of  habitual  excess  in  the  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors, 
yet  it  should  not  be  passed  by  in  any  enquiry  into  the  consequences 
of  such  excess;  more  especially  since  it  may  be  regarded  with  much 
probability,  as  resulting  from  the  same  kind  of  perverted  nutrition, 
carried  to  an  extreme  degree,  as  that  to  which  we  have  already 
traced  various  other  consequences.     It  would  be  more  correct  to 
speak  of  these  cases  as  instances  of  unusual  combustibility  of  the 

lactic  acid,  and  thereby  favouring  the  rheumatic  diathesis,  is  confirmed  by 
the  success  of  Dr.  G.  0.  Rees's  method  of  treating  Rheumatism  by  Lemon 
juice ;  the  rationale  of  \vhich  seems  to  be,  that  the  citric  acid  aifords  a 
large  and  ready  supply  of  oxygen,  whereby  the  lactic  acid  (or  materies 
morbi,  whatever  it  be,)  is  burned  off. 

1  Diathesis—  condition  of  body. 

a  Arteritis  —  inflammation  of  arteries. 

3  Aneurism  —  tumour  resulting  from  the  dilatation  of  an  artery  in  some 
part  of  its  course. 


70  EFFECTS     OF    ALCOHOL 

body,  than  of  really  spontaneous  combustion  ;  since  in  scarcely  any 
of  them,  perhaps  in  none,  does  there  seem  adequate  evidence  that 
the  combustion  originated  without  the  contact  of  external  flame ; 
their  real  peculiarity  consisting  in  this  —  that  whereas  an  ordinary 
human  body  requires  a  large  amount  of  wood,  coal,  or  other  inflam- 
mable material  for  its  combustion, — the  body  in  the  subjects  of  this 
accident  takes  fire  very  readily,  and  burns  as  if  it  were  itself  highly 
inflammable.  In  some  instances  it  has  appeared  as  if  a  very  inflam 
mable  gas  were  given  off  from  the  body;  a  flame  having  darted  towards 
it  from  some  distance.  In  all  or  nearly  all  the  cases  in  which  the  pre- 
vious habits  of  the  individuals  were  known,  they  had  been  intemperate ; 
and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  greater  number  of  recorded  instances 
occurred  among  fat  old  people  who  had  been  spirit-drinkers.— The 
chief  source  of  this  peculiar  combustibility  is  probably  to  be  found 
in  the  impregnation  of  the  fluids  and  solids  of  the  body  with  Phos- 
phorus, which  is  perhaps  united  with  hydrogen,  so  as  to  form  some 
highly  inflammable  compound.  This  may  be  conceived  to  result 
from  the  habitual  ingestion  of  Alcohol,  in  the  following  way.  The 
normal  mode  in  which  the  phosphorus  set  free  by  the  waste  or  dis- 
integration l  of  Nervous  matter,  is  extricated  from  the  system,  is 
through  the  urine,  after  having  been  converted  by  oxidation  into 
phosphoric  acid.  Now  if  there  be  not  oxygen  enough  in  the  blood 
to  effect  this  conversion,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  phosphorus 
would  be  retained  in  the  fluids,  and  possibly  deposited  again  in  the 
solids;  and  since  we  have  seen  that  the  continual  presence  of  alco- 
hol in  the  circulation  gives  even  to  arterial  blood  a  venous  character, 
it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how  much  a  retention  of  the  phos 
phorus  destined  for  excretion  should  be  favoured  by  habitual  intem- 
perance. It  is*  a  remarkable  confirmation  of  this  view,  that  the 
breath  of  drunkards  has  been  sometimes  observed  to  be  luminous, 
as  if  it  contained  the  vapour  of  phosphorus  or  of  some  of  its  com- 
pounds; and  that  it  has  been  found  by  experiments  upon  dogs,  that 
if  phosphorus  be  mixed  with  oil  and  injected  into  the  blood-vessels, 
it  escapes  unburned  from  the  lungs,  if  time  be  not  given  it  to  unite 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  blood.2 

The  foregoing  are  the  principal  disorders,  local  and  constitutional, 
in  the  production  of  which  we  can  trace  the  operation  of  the  ha- 
bitually excessive  use  of  Alcoholic  stimulants,  with  tolerable  direct- 
ness. It  would  be  easy  to  extend  this  catalogue  by  the  inclusion 
of  other  diseases  which  are  manifestly  aggravated  by  intemperate 
habits;  but  this,  in  fact,  would  require  the  enumeration  of  almost 

1  Disintegration  —  breaking  up  ;  reduction  into  very  minute  panicles. 

2  See  Casper's  Wochenschrift,  1849,  No.  15. — The  luminosity  observed 
by  Sir  Henry  Marsh  in  the  faces  of  two  phthisical  patients,  was  probably 
due  to  the  same  cause  —  the  imperfect  oxidation  of  phosphorus  within  the 
body,  and  its  consequent  extrication  from  the  skin  in  a  vaporous  couditiou. 


ON  THE  HEALTHY  SYSTEM.  71 

every  disease  to  which  the  human  body  is  subject,  more  especially 
if  Inflammation  participate  in  it.  But  the  writer  thinks  it  prefer- 
able to  limit  his  statements  to  the  cases  in  which  the  chain  of 
causation  is  most  continuously  and  obviously  traceable.  It  hay 
been  his  object  throughout  to  show  what  consequences  might  be 
expected  to  arise  from  habitual  "  intemperance ;"  regard  being  had 
to  the  facts  which  have  been  fully  ascertained,  with  respect  to  the 
modus  operandi  of  alcohol  on  the  system  at  large,  and  on  special 
organs.  It  has  been  shown,  that  a  variety  of  disorders  of  the 
nervous  system,  of  the  digestive  apparatus,  of  the  secreting  organs, 
of  the  skin,  of  the  heart  and  arteries,  and  of  the  organic  fluids  and 
solids  in  general,  might  be  thus  anticipated ;  and  that  such  antici 
pations  are  all  completely  verified  by  the  results  of  practical  obser 
vation. — We  might  now  push  the  investigation  further,  and  iuquir  / 
what  evidence  we  have  in  regard  to  the  consequences  of  the  habitu- 
ally "moderate"  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  on  the  human  system.  It 
must  be  freely  admitted,  however,  that  we  have  not  the  same  data 
for  the  determination  of  this  question,  as  that  on  which  we  have 
been  hitherto  engaged ;  and  this  on  two  accounts, — first,  that  the 
consequences  will  be  naturally  remote,  and  will  be  often  such  as 
appear  fairly  attributable,  in  great  part,  if  not  entirely,  to  other 
causes ; — and  second,  that  the  very  general  prevalence  of  the  "  mo- 
derate" or  "temperate"  use  of  alcoholic  liquors,  and  the  shortness 
of  the  time  during  which  Total  Abstinence  has  been  hitherto  prac- 
tised by  any  large  number  of  individuals,  render  it  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  to  draw  any  valid  inference,  as  yet,  from  comparative 
observation.  But  the  writer  would  argue,  that  if  we  have  such  a 
complete  accordance  between  the  predictions  of  Theory  and  the 
results  of  Observation,  in  regard  to  the  consequences  of  habitual 
"excess,"  as  establishes  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect  beyond 
dispute  ]  we  have  a  strong  case  in  favour  of  such  a  relation,  when, 
the  cause  being  in  less  active  operation,  the  predicted  effects  do 
occur,  even  though  at  a  period  so  remote  as  apparently  to  disconnect 
them  from  its  influence.  For  various  reasons,  however,  he  deems 
it  advisable  to  carry  out  this  inquiry  under  the  second  head,  where 
it  will  be  more  conveniently  discussed. 

IV.    GENERAL   EFFECT    OF   THE    EXCESSIVE    USE    OF   ALCOHOLIC 
LIQUORS    ON    THE   DURATION    OF    LIFE. 

69.  We  shall  close  this  part  of  the  inquiry  by  examining  into 
the  general  tendency  of  the  excessive  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  to 
shorten  life ;  either  by  themselves  giving  rise  to  the  diseases  above 
enumerated,  or  by  increasing  the  susceptibility  of  the  system  to  other 
morbific  causes.  That  such  a  tendency  exists,  cannot  for  a  moment 
be  questioned.  No  Life  Insurance  Office  will  accept  an  Insurance 
MI  an  individual  whose  habits  are  known  to  be  intemperate;  and 


72  EFFECTS     OF     ALCOHOL 

if  it  be  discovered  after  his  death  that  he  has  been  accustomed  to 
the  excessive  use  of  alcoholic  liquors,  contrary  to  his  statement  in 
his  proposal  for  insurance,  the  Policy  is  declared  void.  And  it  is, 
doubtless,  owing  in  part  to  the  superior  sobriety  of  the  great  bulk 
of  Insurers  over  that  of  the  average  of  the  population,  that  a  lower 
rate  of  mortality  presents  itself  amongst  them,  than  that  which 
might  be  expected  according  to  the  calculations  founded  on  the 
entire  mortality  of  the  country,  —  to  the  great  profit  of  the  Office. 
Thus  at  the  age  of  40  years,  the  annual  rate  of  mortality  among  the 
whole  population  of  England,  is  about  13  per  1000 ;  whilst  among 
the  lives  insured  in  the  Life  Offices,  it  is  about  11  per  1000 ;  and 
in  those  insured  in  Friendly  Societies,  it  is  about  10  per  1000. 
~-Now  the  average  mortality  for  all  ages  between  15  and  70  years, 
is  about  20  per  1000 ;  whereas  in  the  Temperance  Provident  Insti- 
tution, after  an  experience  of  eight  years,  and  with  several  lives 
above  70  years  of  age,  the  average  mortality  has  been  only  6  per 
1000,  up  to  the  present  season,  in  which  it  has  undergone  a  slight 
increase  from  the  Cholera  epidemic.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  how- 
ever, that  although  many  of  the  insurers  in  this  Office  are  of  the 
poorer  class,  whose  condition  and  employments  expose  them  much 
more  than  the  middling  classes  generally  to  the  endemic '  causes 
of  Cholera,  no  more  than  8  have  died  of  this  disease,  out  of  the 
total  of  about  3500  insurers.  As  a  means  of  further  comparison, 
the  following  table  may  be  subjoined,  in  which  the  mortality  of  the 
insurers  in  the  Temperance  Provident  Institution,  for  the  first  five 
years,  is  compared  with  that  of  the  insurers  in  other  Offices  during 
the  corresponding  period  of  their  existence. 

LIFE  POLICIES.       DEATHS. 

A    issued    944  and  had  14  ;  being  equal  to  15  per  thousand. 
B        "       1901       "        27  "  14  " 

C        "         838       "        11  "  13 

D        «       2470       "        65  "  26 

TPI  "       1596       «        12  «  7£ 

During  the  sixth  year  of  its  existence,  only  two  deaths  occurred 
out  of  the  whole  number  of  insurers  in  the  Temperance  Provident 
Institution,  by  which  its  annual  average  of  mortality  was  reduced 
still  lower. 

70.  Such  comparisons,  however,  must  not  be  regarded  as  demon-, 
strating  that  the  usual  rate  of  mortality  among  "  moderate"  or 
"  temperate"  men,  is  reduced  to  half  its  amount  by  "  total  absti- 
nence ;"  since  other  causes  have  doubtless  concurred  to  keep  down 
the  mortality  in  the  Temperance  Provident  Institution, — such  as  a 
more  healthful  condition  of  the  class  which  has  furnished  most  of 
the  insurers  —  or  a  more  favourable  distribution  of  ages.  But  it 

*  Endemic  —  local;  connected  with  particular  localities  or  occupations. 


ON  THE  HEALTHY  SYSTEM.  73 

will  be  seen  to  be  impossible  that  either  of  these  separately,  or  both 
conjointly,  should  have  occasioned  the  whole  of  the  difference  above 
pointed  out;  the  annual  average,  6  per  1000,  being  no  higher  than 
that  of  the  age  of  15,  which  is  more  favourable  than  that  of  any 
other  period  of  life.  And  we  appear  fully  justified,  therefore;  in 
attributing  a  part  of  the  result  to  the  abstinent  system  practised  by 
the  Insurers  in  the  Temperance  Provident  Office. 

71.  The  influence  of  excess  in  the  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  in 
directly  producing  sickness  and  mortality,  or  in  predisposing  to  it, 
is  most  remarkable  in  tropical  climates,  and  especially  in  such  as 
are  otherwise  unhealthy.     It  would  seem,  indeed,  that  the  more 
unhealthy  the  station,  the  more  freely  do  the  residents  at  it  indulge 
in  the  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants ;  either  from  the  mistaken  idea 
that  they  enable  them  to  withstand  the  effects  of  the  climate,  or 
from  the  desire  that  their  life,  if  short,  shall  be  a  merry  one.     Some 
years  since,  the  writer,  being  himself  in  the  Island  of  St.  Vincent 
in  the  West  Indies,  met  with  a  gentleman  resident  in  Tobago,  who 
informed  him  that  the  average  annual  mortality  amongst  the  Euro- 
peans of  that  island  was  about  one  in  three.     Upon  inquiry  into  the 
habits  of  the  residents,  it  was  found  that  intemperance  prevailed  to 
a  most  fearful  extent  among  them;  few  getting  up  in  the  morning 
without  their  glass  of  sangaree  (wine  and  water),  and  the  strength 
of  their  beverage  gradually  increasing  during  the  day,  until  it  ar- 
rived at  neat  brandy  at  night.     He  further  spoke  of  it  as  no  un- 
common occurrence  for  a  party  of  friends  who  had  met  at  a  drinking- 
bout,  to  be  summoned  within  two  or  three  days,  to  the  funeral  of 
one  or  two  of  their  number.     This  gentleman  was  himself  appa- 
rently quite  indisposed  to  recognize  between  these  occurrences  any 
relation  of  cause  and  effect;  being  obviously  under  the  belief  that, 
if  it  were  not  for  the  protecting  influence  of  good  wine  and  brandy, 
his  life  would  be  worth  a  yet  shorter  purchase.     We  shall  be  led, 
however,  by  the  evidence  about  to  be  adduced,  to  a  different  con- 
clusion. 

72.  The  writer  has  on  various  occasions  sought  for  information 
from  those  who  had  preserved  their  health  during  a  long  residence 
in  tropical  climates,  as  to   their  habits  in   the  use  of  Alcoholic 
liquors ;  and  has  almost  invariably  found  that  they  had  practised 
extreme  moderation,  if  not  total  abstinence. 

73.  At  the  Statistical  Section  of  the  British  Association,  in  the 
year  1.848,  a  paper  by  Mr.  Balfour  having  been  read,  on  the  "  Means 
of  maintaining  the  Health  o?  Troops  in  India/' — in  which  paper 
the  author  attempted  to  show  that  Intemperance  would  be  /ound  to 
add  b'tt  a  small  proportion  to  the  deaths  from  climatorial  diseases ; ' 
but  fchftt  the  special  liability  of  Europeans  to  the  diseases  of  hot 

1  Climatorial  diseases  —  diseases  dependent  on  climate. 

7 


74  EFFECTS    OF    A L  COBOL 

climates  arises  from  their  unsuitability  of  constitution  to  any  climate 
widely  different  from  that  of  their  own  country, — an  important  dis- 
cussion took  place,  in  the  course  of  which  some  valuable  facts  were 
established  by  the  testimony  of  several  officers  present,  (medical 
and  otherwise)  who  had  served  in  India  and  elsewhere.  The  returns 
contained  in  the  paper,  showed  a  marked  difference  in  rate  of  mor- 
tality, between  the  ordinary  Soldiers  and  the  Officers;  a  difference 
which  was  greater  according  to  the  unhealthiness  of  the  station 
Now  a  certain  part  of  this  difference  must  be  admitted  to  be  due  to 
the  superior  character  of  the  Officer's  lodging,  and  to  his  partial 
exemption  from  the  fatigue  and  the  exposure  to  which  the  Soldier 
is  liable.  But  the  difference  is  chiefly  to  be  accounted  for  by  the 
difference  in  the  manner  of  living  between  the  Soldiers  and  the 
Officers ;  the  former  being  allowed  a  regular  ration  of  spirits,  and 
many  of  them  getting  as  much  more  as  they  can  ]  whilst  the  latter 
are  now  comparatively  abstemious,  drinking  wine  or  beer  in  place 
of  spirits,  and  this  to  a  much  less  extent  than  formerly.  With  re- 
gard to  the  Indian  service,  it  was  specially  asserted  by  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Sykes,  who  has  paid  great  attention  to  the  Statistics  of  the 
Indian  Army,  that  since  it  has  become  the  custom  among  the  Offi- 
cers to  drink  bitter  ale  in  place  of  wines  or  spirits,  the  rate  of  mor- 
tality among  thejn  is  so  greatly  diminished,  that  promotion  is  no 
longer  expected  to  take  place  more  rapidly  in  the  Indian  Army  than 
in  other  departments  of  the  service.  In  illustration  of  the  extreme 
injury  done  by  Intemperance  to  the  Indian  troops,  a  Medical  Officer 
stated  that  within  a  month  after  the  arrival  of  the  order  for  the  dis- 
continuance of  Temperance  Societies,1  he  had  forty  cases  of  Deli- 
rium Tremens  in  his  own  Regiment. 

74.  That  the  liability  to  climatorial  disease  is  by  no  means  iiievi 
table,  and  that  it  is  especially  to  be  avoided  by  the  adoption  of  the 
habits  in  regard  to  diet,  &c.,  of  the  Native  Population,  where  that 
is  healthy, — is  the  testimony  of  all  those  who  have  had  most  exten- 
sive opportunities  of  forming  a  judgment  on  the  subject.  The  two 
following  citations  from  different  publications, — the  one  by  Lieute- 
nant-Colonel Sykes,  who  was  himself  long  resident  in  India, — the 
other  by  Dr.  Daniell,  Assistant  Surgeon  to  the  Forces,  who  has  had 
the  superintendence  for  a  considerable  time  of  some  of  the  most 
unhealthy  stations  on  the  Western  Coast  of  Africa, — will  carry  with 
them  great  weight.  "  I  never  followed  a  farinaceous  or  vegetable 
regimen  myself  in  India,"  says  Colonel  S.,  "  nor  do  I  recommend 
it  to  others;  but  I  ate  moderately  and  drank  little,  and  I  have  a 

1  The  Authorities  at  the  Horse  Guards,  who  have  taken  the  extraordinary 
step  of  putting  down  Temperance  Societies  in  the  Army,  on  the  ground 
that  every  organization  but  the  regimental  is  contrary  to  the  discipline  of 
the  service,  can  scarcely  be  supposed  cognizant  of  what  they  have  to  an- 
swer for. 


ON  THE   HEALTHY'SYSTEM.  75 

strong  conviction  that  much  of  European  disease  in  India  is  trace- 
able to  over-stimulus,  and  that  the  mortality  among  the  European 
troops  will  not  be  lessened  until  the  European  Soldier  is  improved 
in  his  habits ;  until  he  is  made  to  understand  that  temperance  is  for 
the  benefit  of  his  body,  libraries  for  the  benefit  of  his  mind,  exer- 
cise for  the  benefit  of  his  health,  and  Savings'  Banks  for  the  benefit 
of  his  purse.  The  climate  of  India  is  less  to  blame  than  indivi- 
duals', for^  in  case  Foreigners  find  the  people  in  a  country  healthy, 
they  should,  to  a  certain  extent,  conform  to  the  habits  of  the  Natives 
to  be  healthy  also.1  So  with  regard  to  Africa,  Dr.  Daniell  says,  "  It 
is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  notorious  insalubrity  of  Africa  has 
frequently  served  as  the  scape-goat  on  which  the  blame  of  those  evil 
consequences  (resulting  from  the  reprehensible  indulgence  of  dissi- 
pated courses)  might  be  unreservedly  thrown,  without  the  risk  of  . 
their  being  disputed  or  questioned."  2  And  again,  when  describing 
the  Bight  of  Benin,  one  of  the  most  pestilential  localities  on  the 
surface  of  the  globe,  he  says,  "  And  yet,  amid  these  regions  so  rife 
with  disease  and  death,  I  have  known  Europeans  reside  for  a  number 
of  years  in  the  enjoyment  of  good  health,  from  the  simple  secret  of 
moderately  conforming-  to  the  habits  of  the  natives  as  regards  their 
diet,  exercise,  and  attention  to  the  due  performance  of  the  cutaneous 
functions3."4 

75.  The  evidence  of  Statistics,  however,  is  more  valuable  on  this 
point,  than  the  mere  affirmation  of  individuals,  however  trust- 
worthy ]  and  to  this,  as  set  before  us  by  Colonel  Sykes,  we  shall 
now  proceed.  —  The  per-centage  annual  mortality  from  sickness  of 
the  three  armies  of  Bengal,  Bombay,  and  Madras,  for  the  last  twenty 
years,  has*  averaged  as  follows  : — 


BENGAL. 

BOMBAY. 

MADRAS. 

Native    ..  . 

1-79 

1-291 

2-095 

European  

IT.OQ 

5-071 

3-846 

This  Table  presents  some  very  remarkable  features.  In  the  first 
place,  the  striking  contrast  between  the  rate  of  mortality  of  the 
European  and  of  the  Native  Troops,  serving  together,  and  exposed 
to  the  same  morbific  causes.  Secondly,  the  great  difference  between 
the  mortality  of  the  Troops  serving  in  the  different  Presidencies. 
And  thirdly;  the  circumstance  that  in  the  Madras  Presidency  the 

1  Vital  Statistics  of  the  Indian  Army,  in  Journal  of  the  Statistical  So^ 
ciety,  vol.  x.  j...  184. 

2  Sketches  of  the  Medical  Topography  and  Native  Diseases  of  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea,  Western  Africa,  p.  13. 

3  Cutaneous  functions  —  functions  of  the  skin. 

4  Op.  cit.  p.  61. 


76  EFFECTS     OF    ALCOHOL 

rate  of  mortality  is  hiyJiest  amongst  the  Native  Troops,  and  lowest 
among  the  Europeans. 

76.  Now  on  the  first  point  Colonel  Sykes  remarks  : — "  I  will  not 
gay  that  the  question  is  absolutely  solved  by  the  reply  '  Habits  of 
Life ;'  but  I  will  say,  reasoning  from  analogy,  that  the  reply  goes 
a  great  way  to  solve  it.     The  European  soldier  in  India  is  over- 
stimulated  by  food,  over-stimulated  by  drink,  and  under-stimulated 
in  mind  and  body.     The  European  soldier  eats  a  quantity  of  animal 
food  every  day  of  his  life ;  he  drinks  a  quantity  of  alcohol  every 
day  of  his  life  to  the  amount  of  a  bottle  of  spirits  in  every  five  days, 
two  drams  being  served  out  to  him  daily;   and  he  has   not  any 
mental  and  little  bodily  exercise.     Happily  the  pernicious  practice 
has  been  recently  discontinued ;  but  time  was,  when  the  European 
soldier  was  compelled   to  take  his  dram  by  eight  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  with  the  thermometer  varying  from  70°  to  90°  or  more, 
at  the  different  seasons  of  the  year,  leaving  him  in  a  state  of  nervous 
irritation  and  thirst,  which  could  only  be  relieved,  as  he  thought, 
by  further  potations ;  indeed  I  have  been  assured  within  the  last 
few  days  by  a  pensioned  Artillery  Staff-Serjeant,  who  never  drank 
in  India,  and  was  only  in  hospital  Jive  days  during  twenty-one 
years'  service,  that  he  has  known,  out  of  a  detachment  of  100  Ar- 
tillery men,  no  less  than  eight  men  in  straight-jackets  at  one  time, 
absolutely  mad  from  drink.     Now  animal  food  with  the  assistance 
of  such  an  auxiliary,  and  combined  with  mental  vacuity,  go  far  to 
account  for  the  excess  of  mortality  amongst  the  Europeans." 

77.  The  question  next  arises,  why  the  mortality  of  the  European 
troops  in  the  Madras  Presidency  should  be  so  much  less  than  that 
of  the  others,  being  about  three-fourths  that  of  the  Bombay  troops, 
and  but  little  more  than  half  that  of  the  Bengal  army;  whilst,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  mortality  of  the  Native  troops  in  the  Bombay 
army  is  but  little  more  than  two-thirds  of  that  of  the  Bengal  army, 
and  less  than  two-thirds  that  of  the  Madras  army.     There  does  not 
seem  to  be  any  such  difference  in  the  cli material  diseases,  or  in  the 
character  of  the  military  stations  of  the  three  Presidencies,  as  are  by 
any  means  sufficient  to  account  for  this  discrepancy ;  and  if  there  were, 
we  should  expect  them  to  manifest  themselves  alike  in  the  Native  and 
in  the  European  army.     That  the  reverse  is  the  case,  must  be  ad- 
mitted to  be  a  cogent  argument,  if  not  a  complete  proof,  in  favour  of 
the  insufficiency  of  any  such  account  of  the  discrepancy.  The  following 
are  the  causes  assigned  by  Colonel  Sykes : — The  Bengal  European 
army  has  no  supply  of  porter,  but  is  furnished  with  rum,  a  spirit  not  so 
wholesome  as  arrack.     On  the  other  hand,  the  Madras  army  con- 
sume large  quantities  of  porter,  and  drink  comparatively  little  spirit, 
what  they  do  consume  being  arrack.     The  Bombay  troops  have  only 
recently  commenced  the  consumption  of  porter,  and  the  spirit  they 
drink  is  understood  to  be  more  wholesome  than  rum,  and  less  so 


ON     THE     HEALTHY     SYSTEM.  7? 

than  arrack.  "These  results,"  says  Colonel  Sykes,  "are  certainly 
not  conclusive;  but  I  cannot  help  associating  the  increased  con- 
sumption of  malt  liquor  by  the  Madras  Europeans  with  their  com- 
parative healthiness;  and  the  gradations  of  the  mortality  in  the 
Bengal  and  Bombay  European  troops  as  partly  influenced  by  the 
quality  (no  doubt  much  more  by  the  quantity)  of  the  spirits  they 
respectively  consume." 

78.  <Qn  the  other  hand,  the  excess  of  mortality  in  the  Native 
army  of  Madras  above  that  of  the  Bengal  and  Bombay  troops,  is 
equally  attributable  to  a  difference  in  the  habits  of  the  individuals 
composing   it.      "  Of  the    Bombay   army,"    says    Colonel    Sykes, 
"  six-eighths  consist  of  Hindoos,  and  considerably  more  than  half 
of  the  whole  army  are  Hindostanees.     These  men  never  taste  meat, 
fish,  or  spirituous  liquors,  but  live,  I  may  from  personal  observation 
venture  to  say,  almost  exclusively  upon  unleavened  cakes  of  wheat 
or  other  cerealia,  baked  upon  an  iron  dish,  and  eaten   as  soon  as 
cooked.     The    great  majority  of  the  Bengal  army  consists  of  a 
similar  class  of  men.     The  Madras  army  in  its  constituents  is  the 
reverse  of  the  other  two.     In  the  cavalry  there  are  from  6  to  7 
Mussulmans  to  1  Hindoo,  and  in  the  infantry  there  is  1  Mussulman 
to  every  1J  or  If  Hindoos;  but  amongst  the  latter  there  is  a  con- 
siderable number  of  low  castes,  without  prejudices  about  food,  and 
unrestrained  by  the  prejudices  of  caste;  therefore  the  majority  of 
the  Native  troops  of  the  Madras  army  can  eat  and  drink  like  Euro- 
peans."    Thus  then  we  see,  that  whereas  in  the  Madras  army,  in 
which  the  European  and  Native  habits  most  closely  assimilate,  the 
mortality  of  the  former  is  less  than  double  (about  38  to  21)  that  of 
the  latter;   the  mortality  of  the  Bengal  Europeans  is  nearly  siu, 
times  (about  74  to  13)  that  of  the   Bombay  Natives ;  this  differ- 
ence bearing  such  a  relation  to  the   greater  abstemiousness  of  the 
Native  soldiers,  and  the  larger  consumption  of  spirits  by  the  Eu- 
ropeans, that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  avoid  the  inference  that  they 
must  be  connected  in  the  relation  of  effect  and  cause. 

79.  The  following  returns  are  of  value,  as  showing  the  propor- 
tion of  sickness  between  the  members  of  Temperance  Societies1  in 
the  European   Regiments  serving  in  India,  and   the  soldiers  not 
members  of  these  Societies ;  the  average  daily  number  of  men  in 
hospital  of  each  class  being  stated,  for  each  of  the  first  six  months 
of  1838,  and  the  per-centage  being  calculated  with  reference  to  the 
strength  of  each  division. 

1  In  these  Societies  the  pledge  simply  held   the  members  to  abstinence 
from  distilled  spirits,  and  from  excess  in  the  use  of  any  fermented  liquor. 


78 


EFFECTS     OF     ALCOHOL 


r 

Months 

Strength 
of  the  Tem- 

Strength of 
remainder 

Relativt  proportions 
admitted  to  Strength. 

Average  daily  per 
centage  of  men 
in  Hospital. 

perance 

Societies. 

of 
Regiment. 

Temperance 

Remainder 

Temper- 

Remain- 

Society. 

of  Regiment 

Society. 

Regiment. 

January 

1953 

2569 

1  in  18-77 

1  in  9-22 

2-54 

8-15 

February 

1840 

2639 

1  in  20-10 

1  in  9-24 

2-27 

8-27 

March  . 

1542 

2879 

1  in  14-44 

1  in  7-14 

2-94 

8-66 

April  .  . 

1359 

3081 

1  in  10-9 

1  in  5-26 

5-47 

10-28 

May    .  . 

1282 

3161 

1  in  18-44 

1  in  6-35 

5-24 

10-66 

Tune  .  . 

1364 

3075 

1  in  19-53 

1  in  6-37 

4-55 

10-35 

Total 

9340 

17,354 

1  in  16-47 

1  in  7-28 

3-65 

10-20 

Thus  it  appears  that  on  the  whole,  the  daily  per  centage  of  in- 
valids among  the  members  of  the  Temperance  Societies  was  but 
8-65,  whilst  in  the  remainder  of  the  troops  it  was  10-20,  or  nearly 
three  times  as  great. — The  Cameronian  Regiment,  stationed  in  Fort 
William  in  the  years  1837  and  1838,  lost  only  twenty-six  men  in 
the  first  of  these  years,  and  twenty-two  in  the  second ;  whereas  the 
average  mortality  in  Fort  William,  for  a  period  of  fourteen  years 
previously,  had  been  nearly  seventy-two.  The  proportion  of  the 
Regiment  which  belonged  to  the  Temperance  Society  was  contin- 
ually varying;  but  the  general  result  of  its  operation  was,  that 
since  the  arrival  of  the  Regiment  in  India,  its  annual  consumption 
of  spirits  diminished  from  10,000, 12,000,  and  even  14,000  gallons, 
to  2,516;  the  amount  drunk  in  1837  having  been  9673  gallons 
less,  and  in  1838,  8242  gallons  less,  than  the  Regiment  was  enti- 
tled to  draw.  On  the  other  hand,  a  considerable  amount  of  beer 
and  wine  had  been  drunk  ;  but  these  beverages  are  far  less  injurious 
to  health,  especially  in  India,  than  distilled  spirits. 

80.  Having  learned  that  the  84th  Regiment  of  Her  Majesty's 
Foot  has  for  some  time  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the 
most  temperate  and  well-conducted  Regiments  in  the  European 
portion  of  the  Indian  army,  the  writer  has  consulted  the  Army 
Medical  Returns,  for  the  purpose  of  "ascertaining  whether  its  rate 
of  mortality  has  differed  in  any  marked  degree  from  the  average 
given  above ;  more  especially  since  it  has  been  quartered  at  Secun- 
derabad,  which  lies  under  the  bad  repute  of  being  one  of  the  most 
unhealthy  stations  in  the  Madras  Presidency.  That  this  bad  re- 
pute is  well  deserved,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  annual  mor- 
tality, for  an  average  of  fifteen  years  previously  to  1846—7,  has 
been  7 '5  per  cent. ;  nearly  double  the  average  of  the  whole  Presi- 
dency, and  more  than  double  the  average  of  the  other  stations. 
The  evil  seems  traceable  to  the  insufficient  barrack-accommodation, 
rather  than  to  the  condition  of  the  surrounding  country;  for  one- 


ON    THE     HEALTHY     SYSTEM.  79 

third  of  the  men  are  obliged  to  sleep  in  the  verandahs,  and  the  re 
mainder  have  by  no  means  a  due  allowance  of  fresh  air  ;  whilst 
the  officers  of  the  regiment  quartered  there,  and  the  Artillery  com- 
pany, who  are  better  lodged,  have  not  shown  any  excess  of  mortality 
above  the  average. 

81.  Now  in  the  year  1846-7,  the  average  strength  of  H.  M. 
troops  in    the   Madras  Presidency  was  5963,  and  the  number  of 
deaths  was  251,  or  4-21  per  cent. ;  which  is  rather  above  the  aver- 
age mortality  in  this  Presidency,  calculated  by  Colonel  Sykes  from 
the  returns  of  twenty  years.     During  the  first  eight  months  of  this 
period,   the    84th    Regiment    was    quartered    at   Fort  St.  George, 
Madras,  which  is  considered  a  healthy  station ;  it  then  performed  a 
march  of  between  four  and  five  hundred  miles  to  Secunderabad,  in 
an  unusually  wet  season,  the  roads  (such  as  they  were)  being  in 
some  parts  knee-deep  in  water ; '  and  it  took  up  its  quarters-  at  Se- 
cunderabad, about  two  months  previously  to  the  date  of  the  return 
(April  1st,  1847).     The  medical  return  of  the  regiment  for  this 
year  presents  us  with  the  almost  unprecedently  low  number  of  thir- 
teen deaths  in  an  average  strength   of  1072  men  ;  the   mortality 
being  thus  at  the  rate  of  only  1-21   per  cent. — Now  during  the 
same  period,  the  63rd  Regiment,  which  was  quartered  at  Secunder- 
abad up  to  February  1st,  1847,  (or  nine  months  out  of  the  twelve) 
lost  seventy-three  men,  which  was  at  the  rate  of  7 -88   per  cent,  for 
the  entire  year;  whilst  the  mortality  for  all  the  other  stations  in  the 
Madras  command  was   only  3-02    per    cent,   for    the    same    year. 
Hence  we  see   that  the  mortality  of  the   84th  Regiment  for  the 
year  1846-7,  was   only    two-fifths   of  that   of  the   average   of  the 
healthier  Stations  in  the  Madras  Presidency,  which  average  its  own 
very  low  rate  contributed  to  reduce. 

82.  During  the  year  1847-8,  the  total  mortality  in  the  Madras 
Presidency  was  227  to  6040  of  average  strength,  or  3  76  per  cent. ; 
but  this  reduction  from  the  preceding  year  was  not  due  to  any  con- 
siderable difference  in  the  rate  of  mortality  at  the  other  stations, 
being  almost  entirely  consequent  upon  the  diminution  in  the  number 
of  deaths  at   Secunderabad.     For  the  84th  Regiment,  which  re- 
mained at  that  station  during  the  whole  year,  lost  in  that  time  no 
more  than  thirty-nine  men  out  of  an  average  strength  of  1139,  so 
that  its  per-centage  mortality  was  only  342;  which  was  Ldow  the 
general  average  of  the  Presidency,  and  less  than  half  the  average 
rate  at  Secunderabad  ^or  fifteen  years  previously. — It  seems  impos- 
sible to  attribute  these  remarkable  results  to  anything  but  the  ab- 
stinent habits  of  the  soldiers  of  this  regiment;  a  large  proportion 
of  them  being  total  abstainers,  and  those  who  were  not  so  being 
very  moderate  in  their  consumption  of  alcoholic  liquors. 

1  Of  this  march   a  more  particular  account   will  be    given  further   OD 
(1 140). 


80  EFFECTS     OF     ALCOHOL. 

83.  The  comparison  of  the  returns  of  this  Regiment  with  those 
of  others  less  remarkable  for  sobriety,  affords  a  full  confirmation  of 
the  deductions  drawn  from  the  statistics  of  crime  in  this  country, 
as  well  as  from  individual  observation,  in  regard  to  the  influence  of 
habitual  Intemperance  upon  the  moral  conduct.  That  a  large  pro- 
portion of  offences  amenable  to  punishment,  both  in  the  civil  popu- 
lation, and  in  the  military  and  naval  services,  are  committed  under 
the  direct  excitement  of  Alcoholic  liquors,  there  can  be  no  kind  of 
doubt;  and  the  comparison  of  the  insubordination  and  criminality 
of  a  drinking  regiment,  with  the  orderly  and  reputable  conduct  of 
an  abstinent  one  circumstanced  in  other  respects  almost  precisely 
the  same,  adds  to  the  confidence  with  which  we  may  assert  that  In- 
temperance is  the  chief  cause  of  Crime.  For  besides  the  imme- 
diate provocation  which  alcoholic  excitement  may  induce,  it  is  indu- 
bitable that  habitual  excess  has  a  tendency  to  debase  the  moral  tone, 
and  to  weaken  the  controlling  power  of  the  will ;  —  an  effect  for 
which  the  statements  already  made  as  to  its  action  on  the  mind, 
through  its  organ  the  brain,  leave  us  at  no  loss  to  account.1 

1  The  author  is  happy  to  be  able  to  add  the  testimony  of  Colonel  Eeid, 
who  was  for  some  years  Governor  of  the  Bermudas,  and  subsequently  of 
the  Windward  Islands,  in  favour  of  the  beneficial  effects  of  Total  Absti- 
nence, in  improving  the  physical  condition,  and  in  promoting  the  general 
welfare,  of  a  tropical  population  composed  of  a  mixture  of  Europeans 
with  coloured  people.  To  Colonel  Reid  belongs  the  high  credit  of  being 
one  of  the  few  individuals  occupying  situations  of  high  official  responsi- 
bility, who  have  employed  their  influence  in  promoting  this  great  measure 
of  social  reform.  The  author  is  informed  by  him,  that  the  habit  of  Total 
Abstinence  now  prevails  in  the  Bermudas  to  such  an  extent,  that  in  some 
parishes  there  are  no  public-houses;  the  feeling  of  the  people  being' so 
much  against  these,  that  no  one  will  come  forward  to  give  the  collateral 
security  which  is  required  from  those  who  seek  licenses  for  them.— In  the 
Annual  Reports  of  the  Governors  of  Colonies  which  are  laid  before  Par- 
liament, and  published,  Colonel  Reid  speaks  as  follows,  with  reference  to 
Barbadoes : — "  I  endeavoured,  on  my  first  arrival  here,  to  revive  a  Tem- 
perance Society  which  had  been  before  unsuccessfully  attempted.  Thig 
Society  has  now  taken  root  in  the  midst  of  Distilleries ;  and  promises  to 
effect  a  great  social  revolution  in  West  Indian  habits." 


SUPPOSED     USES    OF    ALCOHOL  81 


CHAPTER   II. 

DOES  PHYSIOLOGY  OR  EXPERIENCE  TEACH  US  THAT  ALCOHOLIC 
LIQUORS  SHOULD  FORM  PART  OF  THE  ORDINARY  SUSTENANCE 
OF  MAN,  PARTICULARLY  UNDER  CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  EXPO- 
SURE TO  SEVERE  LABOUR,  OR  TO  EXTREMES  OF  TEMPERA- 
TURE ?  OR,  ON  THE  OTHER  HAND,  IS  THERE  REASON  FOR  BE- 
LIEVING THAT  SUCH  USE  OF  THEM  IS  NOT  SANCTIONED  BY 
THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  SCIENCE,  OR  BY  THE  RESULTS  OF  PRAC- 
TICAL OBSERVATION  ? 

THE  reply  to  this  question  will  be  best  furnished,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  writer,  by  considering  seriatim l  how  far  science  and  experi- 
ence lead  to  the  belief,  that  the  use  of  Alcoholic  Liquors  is  advan- 
tageous, as  fitting  the  system  for  the  better  endurance, — 1st,  Of 
severe  bodily  exertion') — 2nd,  Of  severe  mental  exertion ; — 3rd, 
Of  extreme  cold; — 4th,  Of  extreme  heat ; — 5th,  Of  morbific  agen- 
cies.* From  the  results  of  these  enquiries  it  will  be  found  not  diffi- 
cult to  draw  deductions  as  to  the  propriety,  or  otherwise,  of  making 
Alcoholic  Liquors  form  part  of  the  sustenance  of  Man  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances. 

I. ENDURANCE   OF    BODILY   EXERTION. 

84.  All  bodily  exertion  is  performed  by  the  instrumentality  of  the 
muscular  apparatus,  which  is  called  into  play  by  the  agency  of  the 
nervous  system.  It  is  requisite,  therefore,  that  we  should  begin  by 
enquiring  into  the  conditions  under  which  their  powers  are  respec- 
tively put  forth  j  and  the  following  may  be  stated  as  fundamental 
positions,  in  which  all  the  most  eminent  Physiologists  are  now 
agreed. 

I.  Both  the  Nervous   and    Muscular   systems  require,  for  the 
energetic  development   and    due    maintenance    of  their   respective 
powers,  that  their  tissues  shall  be    adequately  supplied  with  the 
Materials  of  growth  and  regeneration  ;3  whereby  they  shall  be  able 
to  repair  the  effects  of  the  loss,  which  every  exercise  of  their  vital 
endowments  involves ;  and  also  to  develope  new  tissue  to  meet  in- 
creasing demands  upon  their  functional  activity. 

II.  The  functional  activity,  both  of  the  Nervous  and  Musculai 
systems,  involves  the  disintegration  4  of  a  certain  amount  of  their 
component  tissues,  by  the  agency  of  Oxygen :  the  evolution  of  theii 

1  Seriatim — in  order. 

a  Morbific,  agencies  —  agencies  productive  of  disease. 

8  Regeneration  — reformation  ;  reconstruction. 

4  Disintegration — breaking  up ;  a  reduction  to  very  minute  particles. 


82          SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

peculiar  forces  being  apparently  dependent  upon  the  return  of  the 
living  tissue  to  the  condition  of  dead  matter,  and  upon  the  union 
of  this  matter  with  the  oxygen  supplied  by  the  blood ;  whereby  new 
compounds  are  formed,  the  retention  of  which  in  the  circulating 
current  would  be  detrimental  to  the  vivifying  qualities  of  the  blood, 
and  the  continual  elimination  of  which,  therefore,  is  especially  pro- 
vided for.  —  Both  these  systems  consequently  require,  as  the  con- 
dition of  their  highest  activity,  that  they  shall  receive  an  adequate 
supply  of  blood,  charged  with  Oxygen,  and  purified  from  the  con 
taminating  matters  which  it  has  taken  up  in  the  course  of  its 
circulation  through  the  system.  „ 

III.  For  the  fullest  evolution  of  physical  power,  it  is  requisite 
that  the  Muscular  system  should  receive  an  adequate  excitation  from 
the  Nervous ;  and  the  amount  of  muscular  force  put  forth  on  any 
occasion  depends,  ceteris  paribus,1  on  the  degree  of  nervous  power 
which  is  caused  to  operate  on  the  muscles,  —  a  strong  Emotional 
excitement,  for  example,  being  sometimes  effectual  in  accomplishing 
that  which  the  will  could  not  effect. 

85.  If  the  Nerves  and  Muscles  be  inadequately  nourished,  it  is 
impossible  that  their  normal  power  can  be  developed,  except  under 
the  influence  of  stimulants,  and  then  only  for  a  short  time.     If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  blood  be  imperfectly  charged  with  Oxygen,  it 
cannot  supply  a  sufficient  amount  of  that  element  for  the  perform- 
ance of  those  chemical  changes,  which  are  involved  in  every  action 
of  the  muscular  and  nervous  apparatus.     And  if,  besides  being  defi- 
cient in  Oxygen,  the  blood  be  charged  with  carbonic  acid,  biliary 
matter,  urea,2  or  other  products  of  the  disintegration  of  the  body, 
the  functional  power  of  the  nervous  and  muscular  systems  must 
undergo  a  marked  diminution,  in  consequence  of  the  deleterious 
influence  which  such  matters  exert  upon  their  tissues. 

86.  Now  it  may  be  accepted  as  an  indubitable  fact  in  Organic 
Chemistry,  that  there  is  not  the  slightest  relation  of  composition 
between  Alcohol  and  Muscular  tissue }  and  all  our  present  knowledge 
of  the  subject  tends  to  prove,  that  the  albuminous34 matters  of  the 
blood,  which  constitute  the  pabulum5  of   that    tissue,  cannot  be 
generated  within  the  body  of  man,  or  of  any  other  animal,  but  are 
derived  immediately  from  the  food.     We  Cannot  regard  Alcoholic 
liquors,  then,  as  contributing  to  the  nutrition  of  Muscular  tissue ; 
except  in  so  far  as  they  may  contain  albuminous  matters  in  addition 

1  Ceteris  paribus —  other  things  being  equal. 

3  Urea  —  a  substance  forming  an  essential  part  of  the  urine. 

3  Albuminous  —  of  the  nature  of  albumen ;  albumen  is  the  nutritive  por- 
tion of  the  blood. 

4  This  term  is  here  used  to  designate  what  are  commonly  known  as  the 
protein  compounds  ;  late  researches  having  tended  to  show  the  incorrectness 
of  the  basis  on  which  that  appellation  was  founded. 

'  Pabulum  —  food,  aliment,  nutriment. 


IN    SUSTAINING    THE    VITAL    POWERS.  83 

to  tlic  Alcohol,  which  is  especially  the  case  with  "  malt-liquors."  But 
these  matters  would  have  the  same  nutrient  power,  if  they  were 
taken  in  the  form  of  solid  food. 

87.  We  cannot  speak  with  the  same  confidence,  in  regard  to  the 
impossibility  of  any  assistance  being  afforded  by  Alcohol  to  the 
nutrition  of  the  Nervous  system  ;  since  Nervous  matter  is  essentially 
composed  of  fatty  substances,  which,  though  peculiar  as  containing 
a  large  quantity  of  phosphorus,  do  not  seem  to  contain  nitrogen ;  ' 
and  since  Alcohol  is  regarded  by  the  Chemist  as  approximating  the 
oleaginous  2  class  of  substances  in  its  chemical  relations. — But  there 
are  two  circumstances,  which  render  it  highly  improbable  that 
Alcohol  can  ever  be  converted  into  Nervous  matter.  In  the  first 
place,  we  have  no  other  example  of  an  organic  compound  being 
found  applicable  to  the  nutrition  of  the  animal  tissues,  which  is  the 
product  of  incipient  decay  or  decomposition;  yet  this  may  be 
affirmed  to  be  the  case  with  Alcohol,  since  the  Alcoholic  fermenta- 
tion is  the  first  of  a  series  of  degrading  changes,  which,  if  allowed 
to  continue  unchecked,  terminates  in  the  putrefactive  process;  and 
we  can  scarcely  imagine,  therefore,  that  it  can  be  an  appropriate 
material  for  the  formation  of  the  most  active  and  important  part  of 
the  whole  animal  mechanism.  Again,  we  have  no  other  example 
of  the  application  of  an  organic  compound  to  the  nutrition  of  the 
animal  tissues,  which  exerts  upon  any  of  them  such  a  decidedly 
poisonous  influence  in  large  doses,  as  we  have  seen  to  be  exerted  by 
Alcohol  (§§  13—16).  The  materials  which  constitute  the  pabula 
for  the  several  tissues,  are  perfectly  innocuous  whilst  they  retain 
their  normal  constitution ;  and  their  presence  in  the  blood,  in  larger 
amount  than  usual,  though  it  may  in  various  modes  be  a  source  of 
functional  derangement,  never  exercises  any  special  deleterious 
influence  upon  the  vital  properties  of  the  nervous,  muscular,  or  any 
other  tissue.  On  these  grounds,  then,  it  may  be  almost  positively 
affirmed,  that  notwithstanding  the  chemical  relation  which  Alcohol 
bears  to  Nervous  matter,  it  cannot  serve,  either  in  its  original  con- 
dition, or  under  any  other  guise,  as  a  pabulum  for  the  generation 
of  nervous  tissue. 

87.  We  seem  justified  by  the  laws  of  Physiology,  therefore,  in 
assuming  that  Alcoholic  liquors  cannot  supply  the  first  of  the  requi- 

1  It  is  usually  stated,  on  the  authority  of  Fremy,  that  the  fatty  acids  of 
the  nervous  substance  contain  nitrogen  ;  this,  however,  is  probably  an 
error ;  arising  from  the  substance  of  the  brain  or  nerves  being  submitted 
to  analysis  en  masse  ;  for  this  substance  consists  not  merely  of  the  fatty 
contents  of  the  cells  and  tubes,  but  of  their  albuminous  walls ;  and  thus 
regarded  chemically,  it  is  a  mixture  of  oleaginous  with  a  small  quantity 
of  albuminous  matter,  which  last,  when  included  in  the  analysis,  would 
give  to  the  former  ingredient  the  appearance  of  containing  azote.  —  'Se<* 
Valentin's  Lehrbuch  der  Physiologic,  Band.  I.,  p.  174.) 

a  Oleaginous  —  oily  or  fatty. 


84          SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

sites  already  enumerated  for  the  development  of  the  physical  power 
of  the  nervous  and  muscular  apparatus ;  and  we  have  next  to  con- 
sider what  is  its  capacity  in  regard  *o  the  second.  It  may  be  safely 
affirmed  that  the  introduction  of  Alcohol  into  the  blood  cannot  stand 
in  the  place  of  the  Oxygen  which  is  essential  to  the  functional  acti- 
vity of  the  nervous  and  muscular  systems ;  on  the  contrary,  its 
presence  in  the  blood  would  rather  tend  to  impede  the  oxidation  of 
their  organic  components,  both  by  the  more  cogent  demand  for 
oxygen  which  it  will  itself  set  up,  and  also  by  the  preventive  influ- 
ence which  it  is  well  known  to  exercise  over  the  oxidation  of  other 
organic  substances  (§§  117,  118).  In  both  these  modes,  it  will  not 
only  interfere  with  that  action  of  the  Oxygen  of  the  blood  upon  the 
Nervous  and  Muscular  substances,  which  is  essential  to  their  func- 
tional activity ;  but  it  will  also  tend  to  check  the  removal  by  oxygen- 
ation,  of  those  products  of  decomposition,  whose  continuance  in 
the  blood  is  attended  with  most  serious  injury  to  the  system.  In 
so  far,  in  fact,  as  the  presence  of  alcohol  in  the  circulating  current 
tends  to  give  to  arterial  blood  a  venous  character,  it  must  thereby 
impair  its  power  of  serving  as  the  exciting  fluid  (for  so  we  may  term 
it)  of  the  nervous  and  muscular  battery.  And  this  it  does  in  the 
first  instance,  by  obstructing  the  elimination  of  Carbonic  Acid,  as 
will  be  shown  hereafter  (§  118);  but  more  remotely,  by  that  inter- 
cerence  with  the  proper  functional  activity  of  the  Liver  arid  Kidneys, 
which  we  have  seen  to  be  among  the  most  ordinary  consequences  of 
the  free  and  habitual  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  (§§  54-58). 

88.  But  although  we  are  led  by  the  preceding  considerations  to 
regard  the  regular  employment  of  Alcoholic  liquors  as  rather  a  de- 
triment than  an  aid  to  the  development  of  nervo-muscular  power, 
there  is  a  third  point  towards  which  we  have  to  direct  our  inquiry ; 
namely,  whether  the  peculiar  stimulating  effect  of  Alcohol,  which 
is  especially  exerted  upon  the  Nervous  system,  may  not  enable  a 
greater  amount  of  nervous  energy  to  be  produced,  and  a  greater 
amount  of  muscular  power  to  be  thereby  called  forth,  than  could  be 
generated  without  its  aid.  In  considering  this  question,  it  is  most 
important  to  keep  in  view  the  difference  between  a  temporary  and  a 
sustained  effort.  We  have  seen  that  the  usual  effect  of  a  moderate 
dose  of  Alcohol  is,  in  the  first  instance,  an  increase  in  the  force  and 
rapidity  of  the  Circulation,  and  in  the  activity  and  energy  of  the 
functions  of  the  Nervous  system ;  and  both  these  conditions  will  be 
favourable  to  the  development  of  Muscular  power,  so  long  as  they 
continue.  But  such  a  state  cannot  long  endure.  We  may  increase 
the  amount  of  Nervous  power  developed  in  a  given  time,  by  the  in- 
fluence of  Alcoholic  stimulants;  or  we  may  prolong  its  generation 
by  the  same  kind  of  assistance,  when  it  would  otherwise  have  failed. 
But  as  every  exertion  of  Nervous  power,  like  that  of  Muscular,  in- 
volves the  death  aud  dec;./  of  u  certain  amount  of  the  tissue  by 


IN     SUSTAINING    THE    VITAL    POWERS.  85 

which  it  is  evolved,  there  is  a  limit  to  the  possibility  of  its  genera- 
tion ;  so  that  we  find  the  continuance,  or  even  the  increase,  of  the 
stimulus  ceasing  after  a  while  to  produce  any  effect;  and  the  ex- 
hausted power  can  only  be  recovered  by  a  lengthened  period  of 
repose,  which  shall  allow  time  and  opportunity  for  the  regenerating 
processes  to  be  performed,  at  the  expense  of  nutrient  material  drawn 
from  the  blood.  Until  this  has  been  effectually  accomplished,  the 
Nervous  power  is  at  least  as  much  below  par,  as  it  previously  was 
above  it ;  so  that  the  loss  is  certainly  equivalent  to  the  gain.  And 
the  more  the  Nervous  system  has  been  forced,  by  the  influence  of 
Alcoholic  stimulants,  to  give  forth  its  powers  beyond  their  natural 
limit,  whether  as  to  duration  or  intensity,  the  greater  will  be  the 
degree  and  duration  of  that  subsequent  depression,  which  speaks  so 
unmistakeably  of  the  need  of  rest  and  reparation. 

89.  Hence,  therefore,  we  should  anticipate  that  although  the  use 
of  Alcoholic  stimulants  may  enable  a  greater  amount  of  physical 
force  to  be  put  forth  within  a  given  time,  than  could  otherwise  be 
generated,  they  can  be  of  no  assistance  in  the  sustentation  of  nervo- 
muscular  power ;  and  if  the  previous  considerations  be  also  taken 
into  the  account,  we  should  be  led  to  expect  that,  in  the  long  run, 
severe  bodily  labour  will  be  better  borne  without  alcoholic  stimu- 
lants than  with  them, — provided  always  that  the  digestive  apparatus 
be  in  good  working  order,  and  be  adequate  to  prepare  that  amount 
of  alimentary  material,  which  is  required  for  the  regeneration  of  the 
tissues  disintegrated  by  use. 

90.  We  have  now  to  inquire  how  far  the  results  of  practical  ex- 
perience are  coincident  with  these  theoretical  views  j  and  whether 
it  is  found  on  actual  trial,  that  complete  abstinence  from  Alcoholic 
liquors  is  favourable,  or  the  reverse,  to  the  endurance  of  severe 
bodily  labour.     It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  ideas  current,  among 
the  labouring  classes  more  especially,  as  to  the  teachings  of  expe- 
rience on  this  point,  are  opposed  to  our  theoretical  deductions.    But 
there  are  many  circumstances  which  should  lead  us  to  mistrust  the 
popular  voice  on  such  a  question,  and  to  seek  for  proofs  of  a  kind 
that  may  be  more  firmly  relied  on.     The  "  universal  experience" 
.of  former  generations  might  be  quoted  in  favour  of  a  multitude  of 
absurd  notions,  which  we  now  treat  as  simply  ridiculous;  and  when 
there  is  this  additional  complication,  that  the  liking  for  alcoholic 
liquors  is    such   as  very  readily  to  make  "  the  wish  father  to  the 
thought,"  we  find  an  additional   ground   for  suspicion.     But   the 
chief  cause  of  our  mistrust  is  this, — that  there  is  no  appreciation  in 
the  popular  mind,  of  the  connexion  between  the  immediate  and  the 
remote  effects  of  Alcoholic  stimulants.      A  glass  of  malt  liquor,  or 
a  small  quantity  of  spirits,  repeated  three  or  four  times  a  day,  is 
found  to  increase  the  bodily  vigour  for  a  time ;  and  this  increase  is 
set  down  as  so  much  positive  gain,  no  account  being  taken  of  the 

8 


86          SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

Buosequcnt  depression,  which  is  considered  as  ordinary  fatigue. 
Evidence  of  this  kind  is  therefore  of  little  or  no  value ;  and  the 
only  facts  that  can  be  admitted  as  having  any  weight,  are  those 
which  bring  into  comparison  the  total  amount  of  labour  executed 
with  and  without  the  aid  of  fermented  liquors,  during  lengthened 
periods  of  severe  toil ;  these  being  the  indications,  not  of  the  amount 
of  force  which  may  be  temporarily  set  forth,  but  of  that  which  can 
be  habitually  exerted ;  and  therefore  of  the  general  vigour  of  the 
system,  rather  than  of  its  power  in  a  state  of  excitement. 

It  would  be  easy  to  cite  several  modern  testimonies  to  the  supe- 
riority of  the  Abstinence  principle  (to  say  nothing  of  the  ancient 
ones),  from  Benjamin  Franklin  down  to  Dr.  Forbes;  —  the  former 
of  whom  tells  us  in  his  Autobiography,  that  he  was  accustomed,  when 
working  as  a  Pressman  in  a  London  printing-house,  and  taking  only 
bread  and  water  instead  of  the  porter  which  his  companions  drank 
(as  they  said)  to  acquire  strength  for  their  work,  to  carry  a  large 
form  of  letters  in  each  hand  up  and  down  stairs,  to  the  astonish- 
ment of  his  porter-drinking  companions,  who  found  one  of  them  a 
sufficient  load ; — whilst  the  latter  assures  us  that  in  a  recent  excur- 
sion amidst  the  mountains  and  valleys  of  Switzerland,  which  were 
chiefly  traversed  on  foot,  he  found  his  own  "  sexagenarian"  '  vigour, 
sustained  by  cold  water  only,  quite  on  a  par  with  that  of  his  younger 
companions,  who  indulged  in  a  moderate  allowance  of  wine. 2  Such 
examples,  however,  might  be  regarded  as  exceptional,  because  indi- 
vidual ;  and  as  affording  no  contradiction  of  the  supposed  general 
result  of  experience.  They  prove,  however,  that  there  is  nothing 
positively  incompatible,  in  the  habit  of  total  abstinence  from  alco- 
holic liquors,  with  the  sustenance  of  a  high  degree  of  nervo-mus- 
cular  power.  And  it  may  be  well  to  fortify  this  position  with  a 
few  additional  testimonies,  relating  to  cases  in  which  the  power  of 
endurance  was  very  severely  tried. 

92.  Thus,  a  nail-maker  at  Glasgow  assured  the  writer,  that  after 
five  years'  experience  of  the  abstinence  system,  he  "  found  hard 
work  easier,  and  long  hours  more  readily  to  be  endured ;"  and  that 
being  a  member  of  the  Fire  Brigade,  he  was  on  one  occasion  called 
upon  for  continuous  exertion  for  seventy-three  hours,  which  he  en- 
dured, with  no  other  beverage  than  coffee  and  ginger-beer,  while  all 
his  comrades  were  "  beat  and  fell  away."  The  following  statement, 
forwarded  to  the  writer  from  Leeds,  was  signed  by  thirty-finr  men 
engaged  in  laborious  employments ;  out  of  whom  twelve  belonged 
to  the  class  whose  occupations  are  commonly  regarded  as  peculiarly 
trying,  seven  of  them  being  furnace-men  at  foundries  and  gas- 
works, two  of  them  sawyers,  one  a  whitesmith,  one  a  glass-blower, 

1  Sexagenarian  —  one  sixty  years  old. 

9  "Physician's  Holiday,"  p.  26  and  passim. 


IN     SUSTAINING     THE     VITAL     POWERS.  87 

and  the  last  a  railway  guard  u  We,  the  undersigned,  having 
practised  the  principles  of  total  abstinence  from  all  intoxicating 
liquors  during  periods  ranging  from  one  to  ten  years,  and  having, 
during  that  time,  been  engaged  in  very  laborious  occupations,  vol- 
untarily testify  that  we  are  able  to  perform  our  toil  with  greater 
ease  and  satisfaction  to  ourselves  (and  we  believe  more  to  the  satis- 
faction of  our  employers  also)  than  when  we  drank  moderately  of 
these  liquors ;  our  general  health  and  circumstances  have  also  been 
considerably  improved."  With  regard  to  harvest-work,  again, 
which  is  extremely  trying  to  the  strength,  both  from  the  continuity 
of  the  exertion  required,  and  the  heat  of  the  weather  at  the  time 
of  its  performance,  there  is  ample  testimony  that  those  who  go 
through  it  upon  the  abstinence  principle,  are  better  able  to  sustain 
it,  than  those  who  endeavour  to  support  their  strength  upon  fer- 
mented liquors;  and  that  if  an  adequate  supply  of  nutritious  food 
be  provided  for  them,  the  former  will  even  increase  in  weight, 
whilst  going  through  this  severe  toil.  In  some  parts  of  the  county 
of  Cornwall,  where  the  '  abstinence'  system  is  more  extensively 
practised  than  in  any  other  county  in  England,  it  is  the  general 
practice  to  get  in  the  harvests  without  any  allowance  of  fermented 
liquors;  many  labourers,  who  are  habitually  moderate  drinkers, 
feeling  the  benefit  of  the  '  abstinence  system'  at  such  times. 

93.  The  following  example,  drawn  from  another  source,  is  of  pe- 
culiar value,  as  showing  the  comparative  effect  of  the  two  systems 
upon  the  same  individuals. — The  writer  was  acquainted,  some  years 
since,  with  a  gentleman  who  had  been  for  some  years  at  sea  in  the 
Merchant-service,  and  who  not  long  previously  had  commanded  a 
vessel  during  a  voyage  from  New  South  Wales  to  England.  After 
passing  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  ship  had  sprung  so  bad  a  leak, 
as  to  require  the  continued  labour,  not  merely  of  the  crew,  but 
also  of  the  officers  and  passengers,  to  keep  her  afloat  during  the  re- 
mainder of  her  voyage,  a  period  of  nearly  three  months.  At  first 
the  men  were  greatly  fatigued,  at  the  termination  of  their  "  spell" 
at  the  pumps ;  and  after  drinking  their  allowance  of  grog,  would 
"turn  in,"  without  taking  a  proper  supply  of  nourishment.  The 
consequence  was,  that  their  vigour  was  decidedly  diminishing,  and 
their  feeling  of  fatigue  increasing,  as  might  be  expected  on  the 
principles  already  laid  down.  By  the  directions  of  their  Com- 
mander (who  although  very  moderate  in  his  own  habits,  at  the  time 
of  the  writer's  acquaintance  with  him,  was  by  no  means  a  disciple 
of  the  Total  Abstinence  school,  which  renders  his  testimony  the 
more  valuable),  the  allowance  of  grog  was  discontinued,  and  coffee 
and  cocoa  were  substituted  for  it ;  a  hot  "  mess"  of  these  beverages 
being  provided,  with  the  biscuit  and  meat,  at  the  conclusion  of 


1  See  Appendix  B. 


88          SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

every  watch.  It  was  then  found  that  the  men  felt  inclined  for  a 
good  meal  of  the  latter,  when  the  more  direct  but  less  effective  re- 
freshment of  the  alcoholic  liquor  was  withdrawn  ;  their  vigour 
returned }  their  fatigue  diminished ;  and  after  twelve  weeks  of  in- 
cessant and  severe  labour  (with  no  interval  longer  than  four  hours), 
the  ship  was  brought  into  port  with  all  on  board  of  her  in  as  good 
condition  as  they  ever  were  in  their  lives. 

94.  Numerous  examples  might  be  cited  of  comparative  trials 
between  two  sets  of  labourers,  as  nearly  as  possible  alike  in  other 
respects,  but  the  one  practising  Total  Abstinence,  whilst  the  other 
has  relied  upon  the  assistance  of  Alcoholic  liquors.  So  far  as  the 
writer  is  aware,  all  these  contests  have  given  results  in  favour  of 
the  abstinence  system,  when  the  period  of  the  experiment  has  been 
sufficiently  protracted  to  give  its  merits  a  fair  trial ;  and  although  it 
may  be  asserted  that  such  results  are  one-sided,  as  having  been 
made  known  to  the  public  by  the  professed  advocates  of  a  system, 
yet  considering  the  very  large  interests  involved  in  the  maintenance 
of  the  existing  state  of  things  in  regard  to  the  use  of  fermented 
liquors,  it  might  be  reasonably  expected  that  their  upholders  would 
make  known  to  the  world  any  results  of  an  opposite  description, 
had  they  really  occurred.  The  following  statement,  furnished  to 
the  writer  by  a  gentleman  at  Uxbridge,  has  the  advantage  of  being 
the  comparative  return  of  the  regular  labour  of  a  whole  year,  per- 
formed by  two  sets  of  men,  the  one  working  on  the  "abstinent," 
the  other  on  the  "  moderate  "  system,  but  not  pitted  against  each 
other  in  a  contest  for  victory.  It  relates  to  brick-making,  which 
is  commonly  accounted  one  of  the  most  laborious  of  all  out-door 
employments.  "  Out  of  upwards  of  twenty-three  millions  of  bricks 
made  in  1841,  by  the  largest  maker  in  the  neighbourhood,  the 
average  per  man  made  by  the  beer-drinkers  in  the  season  was  760,- 
269 ;  whilst  the  average  for  the  teetotalers  was  795,400 — which  is 
35,131  in  favour  of  the  latter.  The  highest  number  made  by  a 
beer-drinker  was  880,000 ;  the  highest  number  made  by  a  teetotaler 
was  890,000;  leaving  10,000  in  favour  of  the  teetotaler.  The 
lowest  number  made  by  a  beer-drinker  was  659,500;  the  lowest 
number  made  by  a  teetotaler  was  746,000;  leaving  87,000  in 
favour  of  the  teetotaler.  Satisfactory  as  the  account  appears,  I 
believe  it  would  have  been  much  more  so,  if  the  teetotalers  .could 
have  obtained  the  whole  'gang'  of  abstainers;  as  they  were  very  fre- 
quently hindered  by  the  drinking  of  some  of  the  gang ;  and  when 
the  order  is  thus  broken,  the  work  cannot  go  on." 

95.  The  experience  of  large  bodies  of  men,  which  becomes  matter 
of  public  notoriety,  is  in  many  respects  preferable,  as  demonstrating 
(to  say  the  least)  the  perfect  compatibility  of  Abstinence  from  alco- 
holic liquors  with  the  highest  degree  of  physical  vigour,  and  with 
ihe  greatest  power  of  endurance  of  bodily  labour.  Thus,  almost 


IN     SUSTAINING     THE     VITAL     POWERS.  89 

every  traveller  who  has  visited  Constantinople,  has  been  struck  with 
the  remarkable  muscular  powers  of  the  men  engaged  in  the  laborious 
out-door  employments  of  that  city.  Mr.  W.  Fairbairn,  an  eminent 
machine-maker  at  Manchester,  remarked  that  "  the  boatmen  or 
rowers  to  the  caiques,  who  are  perhaps  the  first  ro\vers  in  the  world, 
drink  nothing  but  water;  and  they  drink  profusely  during  the  hot 
months  of  summer.  The  boatmen  and  water-carriers  of  Constanti- 
nople are  decidedly,  in  my  opinion,  the  finest  men  in  Europe  as 
regards  their  physical  development,  and  they  are  all  water-drink- 
ers.'" l  And  several  other  observers  bear  testimony  to  the  extraor- 
dinary strength  of  the  porters  of  Constantinople,  who  are  accustomed 
to  carry  loads  for  heavier  than  English  porters  would  undertake, 
even  under  the  stimulus  of  alcoholic  beverages;  yet  these  Turkish 
porters  never  drink  anything  stronger  than  coffee. 

96.  The  following  statement,  made  upon  the  authority  of  Mr. 
Tremenhere,  one  of  the  Commissioners  employed  to  report  on  the 
state  of  the  Mining  population,  shows  how  completely  the  doctrines 
of  the  reputedly  "  universal  experience,"  in  regard  to  the  oupport 
afforded  by  Alcoholic  liquors  to  the  laborious  artisan,  are  negatived 
by  the  results  of  a  change  of  habit,  forced  upon  those  most  un- 
willing to  adopt  it.  "  A  remarkable  and  most  satisfactory  instance," 
says  Mr.  T.,  "of  a  successful  attempt  to  put  a  check  upon  the  in- 
dulgence in  ardent  spirits,  has  occurred  at  the  iron-works  of  Messrs. 
Houldsworth  of  Coltness,  employing  about  eight  hundred  colliers, 
miners,  furnace-men,  &c.  Much  loss  and  annoyance  had  frequently 
been  occasioned  by  the  negligent  or  wilful  misconduct  of  workmen 
under  the  influence  of  this  habit;  and  the  Messrs/ Houldsworth, 
having  in  vain  endeavoured  to  put  an  end  to  it  by  persuasion  and 
advice,  resolved  to  do  what  they  could  by  removing  the  temptation. 
They  accordingly,  about  three  years  ago,  forbade  the  sale  of  spirits 
at  the  store,  and  at  the  inn  at  their  works,  and  ordered  that  the 
furnace-men  should  not  be  allowed  to  drink  spirits  during  their 
hours  of  labour.  These  men  had  been  accustomed  to  drink  four  or 
five  glasses  of  whiskey  during  each  '  shift/  in  addition  to  what  they 
might  choose  to  drink  at  their  own  homes.  They  remonstrated 
strongly,  and  affirmed  that  it  was  impossible  for  them  to  do  their 
work  without  this  quantity  of  whiskey.  They  were  not  long,  how- 
ever, before  they  found  their  error ;  they  now  drink  nothing  but 
water  during  their  work,  and  tea  and  coffee  at  their  meals ;  what 
they  spent  on  whiskey  they  now  spend  in  wholesome  and  nutritious 
food;  they  allow  that  they  do  their  work  better,  and  that  the  change 
has  been  a  great  blessing  to  themselves  and  their  families;  and 
that  it  is  the  best  thing  that  ever  happened  to  them.  I  was  after- 

'  Sanitary  Report,  1840,  p.  252. 
8* 


90          SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

wards  informed  that  among  the  colliers  and  miners,  there  wu  & 
marked  improvement  from  the  same  cause. " 

97.  The  experiment  has  now  been  carried  on  upon  a  still  larger 
scale,  for  many  years,  amongst  the  seamen  of  the  Merchant-service, 
both  of  this  country  and  the  United  States;  and  the  result  has  been, 
with  few  exceptions,  so  favourable  to  the  Abstinence  principle,  that 
it  is  now  adopted  by  a  very  large  proportion  of  American  trading 
vessels ;  to  whose  general  superiority  in  equipment  and  management 
over  the  mercantile  marine  of  this  country,  in  the  greater  part  of 
which  the  employment  of  alcoholic  liquors  is  still  continued,  a  large 
body  of  evidence  was  recently  given  before  a  Committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons.     The  exceptions  just  alluded  to  relate  to  the 
reputed  liability  of  "temperance"  seamen  to  suffer  from  endemic1 
or  malarious 2  diseases.     Into  this  point  we  shall  enquire  under  a 
subsequent  head ;  and  the  writer  thinks  that  it  will  there  appear 
that  this  liability,  if  it  really  exist,  results  from  the  deficiency  of  any 
measures  that  shall  serve  as  a  substitute  for  the  alcoholic  stimulus, 
in  rendering  the  system  less  obnoxious  to  the  influence  of  the  poi- 
sonous emanations  to  which  it  is  exposed.     (§§  145-147.) 

98.  The  writer  has  had  the  opportunity  of  ascertaining  from  Ship- 
owners who  have  adopted  the  "temperance  "  system  (which  on  board 
ship,  is  equivalent  to  "total  abstinence" — no  other  alcoholic  liquor 
being  substituted  for  spirits),  that  they  have  found  no  difficulty  in 
obtaining  the  services  of  excellent  seamen,  when  a  fair  compensation 
is  made  in  the  superior  quality  of  the  provisions  and  allowances,  or 
in  the  rate  of  wages,  for  the  "  stopping  of  the  grog."     In  fact,  such 
ships  are  in  positive  request  among  seamen  of  the  best  character; 
proving  that  in  spite  of  the  well-known  attachment  of  their  class  to 
spirituous  liquors,  they  are  sensible  of  the  advantages  of  habitual 
abstinence  from  them.     The  writer  having  himself  made  a  voyage 
to  the  West  Indies  and  back,  some  years  since,  in  a  "  temperance 
ship,"  had  the  opportunity  of  remarking  that  during  a  heavy  gale 
of  nearly  three  days'  duration,  which  was  continually  taxing  to  the 
uttermost  the  strength  of  a  crew  far  too  small  for  the  size  of  the 
ship,  the  men  were  at  least  as  ready  for  the  renewal  of  their  exer- 
tions, as  they  would  have  been  if  supported  by  alcoholic  stimulants ; 
whilst  in  various  rowing-matches,  which  took  place  between  them 
and  the  crews  of  other  ships,  whilst  lying  in  port,  they  were  gene- 
rally the  victors.     This  last  fact  is  not  cited  as  proving  the  supe- 
riority of  the  abstinence  system,  since  the  difference  might  be  attri- 
buted  to  the  superior  physical  power  of  the  crew;  but  it  sufficiently 
indicates  that  there  is  in  the  "  abstinence  system  "  nothing  unfavovr 

1  Endemic  —  resulting  from  local  causes. 

J  Malarious  —  resulting  from  a  bad  state  of  the  air. 


IN     SUSTAINING!     THE     VITAL     POWERS.  91 

able  lo  the  maintenance  of  that  power  during  the  vicissitudes  of  a 
seaman's  life. 

99.  The  following  extract  from  a  private  letter  from  a  Captain  in 
the  Merchant-service,  contained  in  the  "  Adviser"  for  October,  1849, 
gives  a  valuable  testimony  in  favour  of  this  conclusion  :  —  "I  har- 
boured in  Newfoundland  on  the  23d  of  December  last,  the  coldest 
day  that  had  been  registered  there  for  the  last  six  years,  the  ther- 
mometer on  shore  indicating  twenty  degrees  below  Zero.     I  can 
honestly  say,  it  was  the  most  severe  frost  I  ever  was  in  on  the  water, 
during  the  twenty-nine  years  that  I  have  been  employed  in  the  New- 
foundland trade.     I  remained  on  shore  from  the  time  mentioned 
above,  until  the  2d  of  March,  and  then  embarked  for  Brazil,  where, 
in  April,  we  had  the  thermometer  ranging  from  80°  to  87°,  and 
remained  in  that  climate  till  the  middle  of  July      All  that  time, 
the  whole  of  my  crew,  with  two  exceptions,  were  strictly  teetotal, 
and  all  able  to  eat  their  allowance,  and  do  their  share  of  hard  work, 
in  the  sun  and  out  of  it,  taking  in  and  out  cargo.     The  two  excep- 
tions did,  in  one  solitary  instance,  infringe  the  law  j  and  they  paid 
the  penalty  in  severe  headache  and  debility  for  some  days." 

100.  It  is  rare  for  any  occasion  to  present  itself,  during  the  march 
of  an  army,  of  testing  the  power  of  sustaining  this  kind  of  prolonged 
exertion,  without  the  supposed  assistance  derived  from  the  use  of 
Alcoholic  liquors ;  but  opportunities  of  this  kind  have  occurred,  the 
abstinence  having  been  in  some  instances  voluntary,  whilst  in  others 
it  was  compulsory  ;  and  the  results  have  in  both  cases  been  most  com- 
pletely confirmatory  of  the  principles  formerly  laid  down.    Two  of  the 
most  striking  examples  of  this  kind  within  the  writer's  knowledge, 
will  be  mentioned  hereafter  under  the  head  of"  Endurance  of  Heat" 
(§§  140,  141);  these  marches  having  been  performed  under  an  ele- 
vation of  temperature  which  rendered  them  peculiarly  trying.     And 
he  will  here  confine  himself  to  the  mention  of  the  fact,  that  during 
Sir  John  Moore's  retreat  to  Corunna,  the  army  was  found  to  improve 
in  health  and  vigour,  as  soon  as  the  usual  allowance  of  spirits  was 
unattainable.    This  fact  is  the  more  remarkable,  as  the  circumstances 
under  which  this  march  was  performed  must  have  been  peculiarly 
depressing  to  the  feelings  of  the  men,  and  could  not  but  have  ope- 
rated unfavourably  (according  to  the  invariable  experience  of  retreat- 
ing armies)  upon  their  physical  powers. 

101.  The  experience  of  whole,  nations,  previously  to  the  intro 
duction  of  Alcoholic  liquors  amongst  them,  is  equally  in  favour  of 
the  assertion,  that  prolonged  and  severe  muscular  exertion  may  be 
at  least  as  well  borne  without  their  assistance  as  with  it.     Where, 
for  example,  shall   we  meet  with  greater   power  of  endurance  of 
toil,  than  was  displayed  by  the  North  American  Indians  in  "fol- 
lowing a  trail,"  before  their  race  became  deteriorated  by  European 
vices  ? 


i  SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

102.  The  question,  it  may  again  be  remarked  in  conclusion,  ia 
not  to  be  decided  by  the  amount  of  strength  which  may  be  put 
forth  at  a  single  effort.     It  may  be  freely  admitted  that  when  the 
body  is  exhausted  by  fatigue,  an  Alcoholic  stimulus,  which  excites 
the  Nervous  system  to  increased  exertion,  may  impart  a  temporary 
strength,  which  shall  enable  the  next  effort  to  be  successful  in  doing 
that  which  could   not  have  been   accomplished  without  it.     But 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  power  of  sustained  exertion  is 
thereby  impaired;  and  that  those  who  have  habitual  recourse  to 
this  stimulus  are  really  doing  themselves  more  harm  than  good. 
This  will  be  most  assuredly  the  case,  when  they  allow  it  to  take  the 
place  of  the  solid  food,  which  their  nervous  and  muscular  systems 
require  for  their  regeneration;  and  the  tendency  of  the  habitual 
employment  of  alcoholic  liquors,  when  the  body  has  been  fatigued 
with  severe  and  prolonged  muscular  exertion,  is  generally  to  di- 
minish rather  than  to  increase  the  desire  for  solid  aliment, — as  the 
examples  above   quoted  clearly  indicate.     And  as  it  is  the  latter 
alone  that  can  afford  real  and  permanent  support,  it  is  obvious  that 
any  habit  which  diminishes  the  natural  disposition  to  profit  by  it, 
must  be  positively  injurious  in  its  influence  upon  the  bodily  vigour. 

II.  —  ENDURANCE   OF    MENTAL   EXERTION. 

103.  All  that  has  been  said  of  the  influence  of  Alcoholic  liquors 
on  the  development  and  sustentation  of  Physical  force,  will  equally 
apply  to  Mental  power ;  since,  whatever  may  be  our  views  as  to 
the  relation  between  Mind  and  Matter,  it  is  not  now  questioned  by 
any  Physiologist,  that  the  Brain  is  the  instrument  by  which   all 
mental  power  is  exercised,  in  Man's  present  state  of  existence,  and 
that  the  continued  development  of  this  power  is  consequently  de- 
pendent upon  those  conditions,  which  are  favourable  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  functional  activity  of  the  Nervous  system  in  general. 
These  conditions  we  have  seen  to  be  (I) — The  healthy  nutrition  of 
the  nervous  substance ;  and  (II) — Tire  due  supply  of  highly  oxy- 
genated and  depurated  blood.1     The  former  process  is  certainly  not 
dependent  upon  the  assistance  of  alcoholic  liquors;  and  from  the 
considerations  already  urged  (§  87),  it  seems  in  the  highest  degree 
improbable  that  they  can  be  of  the  least  advantage  to  it.     The 
latter  cannot  in  any  degree  be  improved,  but  must  be  rather  im- 
paired, by  the  use  of  fermented  liquors;  which,  as  already  stated, 
tends  to  deteriorate  the  quality  of  the  blood,  aud  to  obstruct  its  oxy- 
gen ation. 

104.  That  the  use  of  Alcoholic  stimulants,  however,  is  attended 
in  most  persons  with  a  temporary  excitation  of  mental  activity, — 

1  Depurated  blood — blood  from  which  all  refuse,  deleterious  and  wom-out 
matters  have  been  removed 


IN     SUSTAINING    THE    VITAL    POWERS.  93 

lighting  up  the  scintillations  of  genius  into  a  brilliant  flame,  or  as- 
sisting in  the  prolongation  of  mental  effort  when  the  powers  of  the 
nervous  system  would  otherwise  be  exhausted, — may  be  freely  con- 
ceded ;  and  it  is  upon  such  evidence  as  this,  that  the  common  idea 
is  based,  that  it  supports  the  system  under  the  endurance  of  mental 
labour.  This  idea,  however,  is  probably  as  erroneous,  as  the  no  less 
prevalent  fallacy  of  regarding  alcoholic  liquors  as  capable  of  in- 
creasing the  power  of  physical  exertion.  No  physiological  fact  is 
better  established,  than  that  of  the  depression  of  the  mental  energy 
consequent  upon  the  undue  excitement  of  it,  by  whatever  causes 
that  excitement  may  have  been  occasioned ;  and  the  rapid  and  bril- 
liant flow  of  thought  which  may  have  been  called  forth  by  the  alco- 
holic stimulants,  gives  place,  usually  after  a  few  hours,, to  the  oppo- 
site state  of  languor  and  despondency. 

105.  The  influence  of  Alcoholic  stimulants  seems  to  be  chiefly 
exerted  in   exciting   the   activity  of   the  creating  and  combining 
powers;  such  as  gives  rise  to  poetical  imaginations,  to  artistic  con- 
ceptions, or  to  the  sallies  of  wit  or  humour.     It  is  not  to  be  won- 
dered at,  then,  that  men  possessing  such  powers,  should  have  re- 
course to  alcoholic  stimulants  as  a  means  of  procuring  a  temporary 
exaltation  of  them ;  and  of  escaping  from  the  fits  of  depression  to 
which  most  persons  are  subject,  in  whom  the  imaginative  and  emo- 
tional  tendencies  are  predominant.     Nor  is  it  to  be  denied,  that 
many  of  those  mental  productions  which  are  most  strongly  marked 
by  the  inspiration  of  genius,  have  been  thrown  off  under  the  stim- 
ulating influence  of  alcoholic  liquors.     But,  on  the  other  hand,  it. 
cannot  be  doubted  that  the  depression  consequent  upon  the  high 
degree  of  mental  excitement  which  is  thus  produced,  is  peculiarly 
great  in  such  individuals,  completely  destroying  for  a  time  the  power 
of  mental  effort;  and  hence  it  does  not  at  all  follow,  that  either  the 
authors  of  the  productions  in  question,  or  the  world  at  large,  have 
really  benefited  thereby.     Moreover,  it  is  the  testimony  of  general 
experience,  that  where  men  of  genius  have  habitually  had  recourse 
to  alcoholic  stimulants  for  the  excitement  of  their  powers,  they  have 
died  at  an  early  age,  as  if  in  consequence  of  the  premature  exhaus- 
tion of  their  nervous  energy;  Mozart,  Burns,  and  Byron  may  be 
cited  as  remarkable  examples  of  this  result.     Hence,  although  their 
light  may  have  burned  with  a  brighter  glow,  like  a  combustible 
substance  in  an  atmosphere  of  oxygen,  the  consumption  of  material 
is  more  rapid ;  and  though  it  may  have  shone  with  a  soberer  lustre 
without  such  aid,  we  cannot  but  believe  that  it  would  have  been 
steadier  and  less  prematurely  quenched. 

106.  We  do  not  usually  find  that  the  men  most  distinguished  for 
that  combination  of  intellectual  powers  which  is  known  as  taltntt 
are  disposed  to  make  such  use  of  Alcoholic  stimulants  for  the  pur- 
pose of  augmenting  their  mental  powers;  for  that  spontaneous  ao 


94  SUPPOSED    USES    OF    ALCOHOL 

tivity  of  the  mind  itself,  which  it  is  the  tendency  of  alcohol  to 
excite,  is  not  favourable  to  the  exercise  of  the  observing  and-  purely 
reasoning  faculties,  or  to  the  steady  devotement  of  concentrated  at- 
tention to  any  subject  which  it  is  desired  to  investigate  profoundly. 
Of  this  we  have  a  remarkable  illustration  in  the  habits  of  practised 
gamblers;  who,  when  about  to  engage  in  contests  requiring  the 
keenest  observation  and  the  most  sagacious  calculations,  and  in- 
volving an  important  stake,  always  "keep  themselves  cool,"  either 
by  entire  abstinence  from  fermented  liquors,  or  by  the  use  of  those 
of  the  weakest  kind  in  very  small  quantities.  And  we  find  that 
the  greatest  part  of  that  intellectual  labour  which  has  most  extended 
the  domain  of  human  knowledge,  has  been  performed  by  men  of 
remarkable  sobriety  of  habit,  many  of  them  having  been  constant 
water-drinkers.  Under  this  last  category,  it  is  said,1  may  be  ranked 
Demosthenes  and  Haller;  Dr.  Johnson  in  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  took  nothing  stronger  than  tea,  while  Voltaire  and  Fontenelle 
used  coffee;  and  Newton  and  Hobbes  were  accustomed  to  solace, 
not  to  excite,  themselves  with  the  fumes  of  tobacco.  In  regard  to 
LOCKE,  whose  long  life  was  devoted  to  constant  intellectual  labour, 
and  who  appears,  independently  of  his  eminence  in  his  special  ob- 
jects of  pursuit,  to  have  been  one  of  the  best-informed  men  of  his 
time,  the  following  very  explicit  and  remarkable  testimony  is  borne 
by  one  who  knew  him  well.  "  His  diet  was  the  same  as  othei 
people's,  except  that  he  usually  drank  nothing  but  water;  and  he 
thought  that  his  abstinence  in  this  Respect  had  preserved  his  life  so 
long,  although  his  constitution  was  so  weak."2 

107.  Having  for  several  years  past  been  himself  performing  an 
amount  of  steady  mental  labour,  which  to  most  persons  would  ap- 
pear excessive,  the  writer  may  be  allowed  to  refer  to  his  own  expe- 
rience, which  is  altogether  in  favour  of  Total  Abstinence  from 
ilcoholic  liquors,  as  a  means  of  sustaining  the  power  of  performing 
it.  Having  been  brought  up  as  a  water-drinker,  he  never  accus- 
tomed himself  to  the  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquors;  scarcely 
ever  tasting  them,  except  when  occasionally  led  to  do  so  by  social 
influences,  or  when  he  believed  that  a  small  amount  of  stimulus 
would  improve  the  "tone"  of  his  system,  which  is  liable  to  a  pe- 
culiar relaxation  in  certain  states  of  the  atmosphere.  On  deter- 
mining, about  four  years  since,  to  give  up  the  occasional  use  of 
wine,  &c.,  as  a  social  indulgence,  he  still  held  himself  free  to 
employ  it  when  he  might  think  it  likely  to  increase  the  general 
powers  of  his  system ;  and  for  some  time  he  continued  to  have  oc- 
casional recourse  to  alcoholic  stimulants  (never  exceeding  a  single 
^l^pa  of  wine,  or  half  a  tumbler  of  bitter  ale),  when  he  felt  him- 

1  Macnish's  Anatomy  of  Drunkenness,  p.  36. 
a  Life  by  Lord  King,  vol.  ii.  p.  GO. 


IN     SUSTAINING    THE     VITAL    POWERS.  95 

self  suffering  under  the  peculiar  depression  just  referred  to.  He 
gradually,  however,  found  reason  to  doubt  the  utility  of  the 
remedy ;  and  has  for  the  last  two  years  entirely  given  it  up. 
During  these  two  years,  he  has  gone  through  a  larger  amount  of 
mental  labour  than  he  ever  did  before  in  the  same  period  of  time ; 
and  he  does  not  hesitate  to  say,  that  he  has  performed  it  with  more 
ease  to  himself  than  on  his  former  system ;  and  that  he  has  been 
more  free  than  ever  from  those  states  of  depression  of  mental 
energy,  which  he  was  accustomed  to  regard  as  indicating  the  need 
of  a  temporary  support  to  antagonize  the  depressing  cause.  In 
fact,  he  now  finds  that  when  these  do  occur,  the  use  of  alcoholic 
stimulants  (taken  even  in  very  small  amount)  is  decidedly  injurious 
to  him ;  diminishing,  rather  than  increasing,  his  power  of  mental 
exertion  at  the  time ;  and  leaving  him  still  less  disposed  for  it  after 
their  effect  has  gone  off.  He  attributes  this  change  to  his  entire 
disuse  of  alcoholic  liquors  under  all  other  circumstances ;  and  he 
cannot  but  believe  that  the  results  which  he  now  experiences,  and 
which  have  led  him  to  relinquish  these  stimulants  altogether,  are 
the  natural  effect  of  them  upon  the  healthy  system ;  and  that  the 
benefit  which  some  persons  consider  themselves  as  deriving  from 
their  use,  arises  from  their  simply  removing  for  a  time  the  depres- 
sion which  results  (at  a  long  interval  it  maybe)  from  their  previous 
employment. 

108.  Two  remarkable  cases  have  recently  fallen  within  the  au- 
thor's knowledge,  in  which  individuals  leading  a  life  of  considerable 
intellectual  exertion,  and  long  habituated  to  the  moderate  use  of 
stimulants,  have  derived  considerable  benefit  from  their  relinquish- 
ment. — In  one  of  these  cases,  a  pint  of  ale  was  the  usual  daily 
allowance ;  to  which  a  little  spirits  and  water  at  night  was  occa- 
sionally added.  The  relinquishment  was  commenced  as  an  experi- 
ment, and  without  any  intention  of  persevering  should  it  not 
succeed ;  but  the  benefit  has  been  so  great,  that  the  abstinence  has 
been  subsequently  continued  as  a  settled  practice.  This  gentleman 
not  only  finds  his  general  health  improved,  but  declares  that  his 
power  of  intellectual  exertion  is  much  greater  than  formerly ;  and 
in  particular,  that  he  finds  himself  quite  fresh  and  ready  for  work 
in  the  morning,  instead  of  losing  time,  as  formerly,  in  bringing 
himself  up  to  the  point  at  which  he  left  off,  the  night  before.  —  In 
the  other  instance,  the  usual  daily  allowance  was  from  two  to  four 
glasses  of  wine;  and  this  was  affirmed  to  be  necessary  to  keep  clown 
a  state  of  mental  excitement  to  which  the  individual  was  subject, 
and  to  brace  the  mind  to  steady  exertion.  Failing  health,  however, 
having  occasioned  a  recourse  for  a  time  to  the  Hydropathic  treat- 
ment, this  gentleman,  on  returning  in  a  state  of  renewed  vigour  to 
his  usual  avocations,  wisely  determined  to  persevere  in  the  disuse 


90  SUPPOSED    USES    OF    ALCOHOL 

of  stimulants ;  and  he  has  since  continued  to  practise  the  abstinent 
system,  with  great  benefit  to  his  bodily  and  mental  health. 

109.  Even  if  we  admit,  however,  that  a  certain  amount  of  men- 
tal labour  may  be  performed  with  more  facility  in  a  limited  time, 
under  the  moderate  use  of  Alcoholic  stimulants,  it  is  still  ques- 
tionable, whether  we  do  not,  on  the  whole,  rather  lose  than  gain  by 
their  employment.  For  if  they  cannot  afford  pabulum  '  for  the 
formation  of  nervous  matter,  and  if  their  influence  is  exerted  rather 
in  producing  its  disintegration  than  its  growth,  its  destruction 
rather  than  its  construction,  it  follows  that  every  excess  of  exertion 
performed  under  their  influence  must  be  followed  by  a  correspond- 
ingly long  period  of  incapacity,  during  which  the  regenerating  pro- 
cesses have  to  be  performed,  and  the  brain  again  fitted  for  the 
discharge  of  its  duties;  and  if  it  should  be  forced  into  activity 
before  this  renovation  has  been  duly  performed,  the  amount  of 
stimulus  required  to  bring  it  up  to  the  working  point  will  be  greater, 
and  all  the  consequent  evils  increased.  These  theoretical  predic- 
tions are,  it  is  believed,  in  full  accordance  with  what  observation 
teaches  with  respect  to  the  results  of  reliance  upon  alcoholic  stimu- 
lants for  support  during  mental  labour ;  although,  for  obvious 
reasons,  it  is  not  possible  to  obtain  the  same  pointed  and  decisive 
evidence  on  this  topic,  as  in  regard  to  the  endurance  of  physical 
exertion,  or  of  extremes  of  temperature.  —  But  it  is  frequently 
urged,  that  although  the  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  to  produce  a 
stimulating  action  upon  the  brain,  is  injurious,  yet  that  benefit  is 
derived  from  the  employment  of  a  quantity  sufficient  to  stimulate 
the  stomach  to  the  proper  discharge  of  its  duties,  by  digesting  that 
amount  of  food  which  the  system  requires,  but  which  the  ex» 
haustion  of  nervous  power  prevents  it  from  duly  appropriating. 
This  doctrine,  which  equally  applies  to  the  state  of  imperfect  indi- 
gestion resulting  from  other  causes,  will  be  better  considered  when 
we  have  inquired  into  the  reputed  efficiency  of  Alcoholic  liquors  in 
supporting  the  system  under  exposure  to  the  extremes  of  Cold  and 
Heat,  to  which  question  we  have  next  to  proceed. 

III. ENDURANCE   OP   COLD. 

110.  The  power  of  Alcoholic  liquors  to  enable  the  body  to  resist 
the  depressing  influence  of  external  Cold,  is,  perhaps,  the  best  es- 
tablished of  all  its  attributes,  not  merely  in  the  estimation  of  the 
uninformed  public,  but  in  t>he  opinion  of  those  who  have  scientifi- 
cally considered  the  question.  This  is  by  no  means  surprising. 
The  genial  warmth  which  is  experienced  for  a  time,  when  a  glass 
of  spirits  is  taken  on  a  cold  day,  appears  to  afford  unmistakeable 

1  Pabulum  —  nutriment;  material  adapted  to  form  or  sustain. 


IN     SUSTAINING     THE     VITAL     POWERS.  97 

evidence  of  its  heat-producing  power ;  and  the  chemical  properties 
of  Alcohol  would  seem  to  indicate,  that,  under  such  circumstances, 
it  does  not  merely  act  as  a  stimulant,  increasing  the  activity  of  the 
circulation,  and  augmenting  the  nervous  energy  —  but  that  it  also 
affords  the  material  for  that  combustive  process  by  which  the  heat 
of  the  body  is  sustained  in  a  form  peculiarly  suitable  for  rapid  and 
energetic  appropriation  to  this  purpose.  The  authority  of  Liebig 
is  continually  quoted  in  support  of  this  view ;  but  more  has  been 
built  upon  his  statements  than  they  legitimately  support.  For  his 
arguments  are  rather  directed  to  prove  that  Alcohol  cannot  become 
a  pabulum  for  the  tissues,  and  that  its  sole  use,  therefore,  must  be 
in  maintaining  the  temperature  of  the  body  by  the  combustive 
process,  than  to  show  that  it  is  superior  to  other  materials,  to  whose 
employment,  as.  they  exert  no  stimulating  influence,  the  objection 
raised  against  alcohol  cannot  apply.  That  we  may  place  this  ques- 
tion upon  its  proper  basis,  it  will  be  necessary  to  consider  the 
circumstances  under  which  the  combustive  process  is  usually 
carried  on. 

111.  That  the  maintenance  of  Animal  Heat  is  chiefly,  at  least, 
dependent  upon  the  union  of  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  certain 
materials  contained  in  the  blood,  with  oxygen  taken  in  by  the 
lungs ;  —  and  that  the  non-azotized  l  ingredients  of  the  food  are 
specially  appropriated  to  this  purpose;  —  are  positions  in  which 
there  is  now  such  a  general  agreement  amongst  Physiologists,  that 
they  may  be  assumed  as  a  basis  for  our  further  inquiries.  The 
non-azotized  ingredients  of  ordinary  food  may  be  grouped  under 
two  heads  —  the  saccharine,2  and  the  oleaginous;9  the  former  in- 
cluding all  those  farinaceous  matters  which  can  be  converted  into 
sugar ;  and  the  latter  consisting  of  oil  and  fat  in  every  form.  The 
former  may  be  considered  as  hydrates  of  carbon  ;  their  proportionals 
of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  being  such  as  to  form  water ;  so  that  in 
combustion  they  will  only  consume  as  much  oxygen,  as  will  convert 
their  carbon  into  carbonic  acid.  On  the  other  hand,  the  proportion 
of  oxygen  in  the  latter  is  comparatively  small ;  so  that  in  combus- 
tion they  require  as  much,  as  will  not  only  convert  their  carbon  into 
carbonic  acid,  but  will  also  unite  with  that  part  of  the  hydrogen  for 
which  no  equivalents  of  oxygen  previously  exist  in  the  compound. 
Thus  an  equivalent  of  Starch  consists  of  12  Carbon,  9  Hydrogen, 
and  9  Oxygen ;  whilst  an  equivalent  of  Stearine,  the  b'asis  of  the 
solid  fats,  consists  of  136  Carbon,  132  Hydrogen,  and  10  Oxyger 

1  Non-azotized — destitute  of  nitrogen. 
a  Saccharine  —  resembling  sugar. 
8  Oleaginous  —  oily ;  fatty. 


98          SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

Multiplying  the  numbers  of  the  former  by  llf ,  so  as  to  bring  them 
better  into  comparison  with  the  latter,1  we  find  that, — 

llf  equiv.  of  Starch    —  140  Carbon,  105  Hydrogen,  105  Oxygen. 
1    equiv.  of  Stearine  =  136  Carbon,  132  Hydrogen,    10  Oxygen. 

Now  in  the  former  case,  the  number  of  equivalents  of  oxygen 
necessary  for  the  conversion  of  the  starch  into  carbonic  acid  and 
water,  will  be  no  more  than  that  required  for  the  change  of  its  car- 
bon into  carbonic  acid,  namely,  (140  X  2  =)  280;  but  in  the  latter 
case,  the  number  required  will  not  be  merely  that  which  will  convert 
the  136  eq.  of  carbon  into  carbonic  acid,  namely,  (136  X  2  =)  272 ; 
but  also  that  required  for  combination  with  those  122  equivalents  of 
hydrogen,  for  which  no  equivalent  of  oxygen  exists  in  the  compound, 
making  in  all  (272  -f  122  =)  394.  A  much  more  energetic  com- 
bustive  process  is  required,  therefore,  for  the  conversion  of  Stearine 
into  carbonic  acid  and  water,  than  for  effecting  the  same  conversion 
upon  Starch ;  for  not  only  is  the  quantity  of  free  oxygen  consumed 
much  larger,  but  the  amount  of  heat  generated  will  be  much  greater; 
since  much  more  heat  is  produced  by  the  combustion  of  Hydrogen, 
than  by  that  of  Carbon. 

112.  Now  the  atomic  composition  of  Alcohol  being  4  equivalents 
Carbon,  6  eq.  Hydrogen,  and  2  eq.  Oxygen,  it  is  intermediate,  in 
regard  to  its  proportion  of  oxygen,  between  the  farinaceous  and  the 
oleaginous  substances;  bearing,  however,  a  strong  resemblance  to 
the  latter,  in  regard  to  the  large  proportion  of  Hydrogen  for  which 
it  does  not  contain  an  equivalent  of  oxygen.  This  will  be  best  seen 
by  multiplying  the  equivalent  of  Alcohol  by  31£,  which  will  bring 
the  total  weight  of  its  carbon  and  hydrogen  exactly  to  the  same 
figure  with  that  of  lit  of  Starch.2 

31£  equiv.  of  Alcohol  =  126  Carbon,  189  Hydrogen,  63  Oxygen. 
Thus,  then,  in  the  combustion  of  this  amount  of  Alcohol,  there  will 

1  We  thus  make  the  sum  total  of  the  weights  of  Carbon  and  Hydrogen 
very  nearly  the  same  in  the  two  cases ;  for 

140  equiv.  of  Carbon        (140  X  6)  —  840 
and  105  equiv.  of  Hydrogen  (105  X  1)  =  105 

945 


whilst  136  equiv.  of  Carbon      (136  X  6)  =  816 
and  132  equiv.  of  Hydrogen  (132  X  1)  =  132 

948 


1  For  126  equivalents  of  Carbon (126  X  0)       756 

and  189  equivalents  of  Hydrogen =  189 

946 


IN     SUSTAINING    THE    VITAL    POWERS.  99 

riot  rarely  be  required  (126  X  2  =)  252  equiv.  of  oxygen,  for  the 
conversion  of  its  carbon  into  carbonic  acid  ;  but  as  (189  —  63)  126 
equivalents  of  hydrogen  exist  in  the  compound  without  any  equiva- 
lent of  oxygen,  that  number  of  equivalents  of  oxygen  will  be  *re- 
quired  to  convert  all  the  hydrogen  into  water,  making  in  all  (252  -f- 
126  =)  378.  This  amount  is  not  far  from  that  required  by  an 
equivalent  quantity  of  Stearine ;  and  as  a  much  larger  proportion 
of  it  is  consumed  by  the  hydrogen,  it  is  obvious  that  the  heat  pro- 
duced must  be  greater  than  that  evolved  by  the  combustion  of  an 
equal  weight  of  hydro-carbon  contained  in  the  latter. 

113.  Considered,  therefore,  merely  in  the  light  of  fuel,  Alcohol 
is  superior  to  Oleaginous  substances,  whilst  it  is  of  far  higher  value 
than  any  substance  of  the  Saccharine  group ;  and  of  this  the  Che- 
mist is  practically  aware,  for  he  finds  that  a  spirit-lamp  gives  more 
heat  than  an  oil-lamp.     Were  the  human  body  simply  a  lamp  or  a 
furnace,  therefore,  we  should  have  no  room  for  doubt  as  to  the  effi- 
ciency of  Alcohol  in  maintaining  its  heat ;  and  it  is  because  the 
influence  of  Alcohol  upon  the  vital  functions  is  too  much  disre- 
garded, i*s  share  in  the  mere  chemical  process  of  combustion  being 
too  exclusively  kept  in  view,  that  notions  are  entertained  of  its  value, 
which  are  contradicted  by  lengthened  and  extended  experience. 
This  will  be  best  understood,  if  we  examine  in  the  first  instance 
into  the  circumstances  under  which  other  non-azotized  substances 
taken  in  as  food  are  made  to  contribute  to  the  maintenance  of  Heat. 

114.  Of  such  substances,  a  certain  amount  is  usually  circulating 
in  the  blood.     All  analyses  indicate  the  existence  of  Fatty  matters 
in  that  fluid  j  their  proportion,  however,  varies  considerably,  being 
much  greater  after  a  full  meal  of  which  oleaginous  matters  have 
formed  a  part.     Although  the  amount  is  usually  not  too  large  to  be 
held  in  solution  by  the  alkali  of  the  blood,  yet  the  serum  of  blood 
drawn  within  a  few  hours  after  such  a  meal,  is  usually  found  to  be 
rendered  opaque  or  milky,  by  the  presence  of  an  unusual  quantity 
of  oleaginous  particles  suspended  in  it,  in  a  state  of  very  fine  divi- 
sion;  these  however  gradually  diminish  in  amount;  and  in  a  few 
hours  more,  the  serum  becomes  clear  again,  indicating  that  these 
particles  have  been  in  some  way  disposed  of.    This,  we  can  scarcely 
doubt,  is  the  consequence  of  their  having  been  "  burned  off"  by  the 
respiratory  process,  which  is  every  hour  carrying  away  at  least  one- 
third  of  an  ounce  of  carbon  from  the  blood. — The  evidence  that  the 
Saccharine  elements  of  the  food  are  used-up  in  the  respiratory  pro- 
cess with  equal  rapidity,  is  not  quite  so  distinct;  since  these  ele- 
ments appear  to  be  usually  introduced  into  the  blood  in  the  condition 
of  lactic  acid,1  the  detection  of  which  is  attended  with  some  uncer- 
tainty.    But  it  has  bgec  sufficiently  proved -that  when  the  saccha- 

1  Lactic  'acid  —  an  acid  obtained  from  milk. 


100          SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

rine  ingredients  of  the  food  are  unusually  abundant,  they  enter  an 
such  into  the  blood ;  where  they  may  be  detected  shortly  after  a 
meal,  especially  if  that  meal  have  been  preceded  by  a  long  fast. 
Lilfe  the  superfluous  fatty  matters,  however,  they  soon  disappear  j 
being  carried  off,  there  can  be  little  doubt,  by  the  respiratory  pro- 
cess. 

115.  In   this  manner,  then,  the  Heat-producing  materials  are 
usually  supplied  to  the  system  from  meal  to  meal ;  the  greater  part 
of  them  being  destined  for  elimination  from  the  blood  within  a  short 
time  after  their  admission  into  it;  and  the  power  of  sustaining  heat 
existing  in  its  greatest  vigour,  only  whilst  some  of  them  remain 
unconsumed.     This  inference  is  confirmed  by  ordinary  experience ; 
for  every  one  knows  how  much  more  severely  Cold  is  felt  after  a 
fast  of  some  hours'  duration,  than  after  a  full  meal.     We  are  accus- 
tomed to  refer  the  difference  to  the  condition  of  the  stomach ;  but 
the  stomach   may  have  been  emptied,  by  the  completion  of  the 
digestive  process,  long  before  the  increased  susceptibility  to  cold 
commences;  so  that  it  would  be  more  correct  to  refer  this  increase 
to  the  exhaustion  of  the  supply  of  combustible  material  last  intro- 
duced into  the  blood,  than  to  the  vacuity  of  the  stomach.    That  an  in- 
crease in  the  power  of  maintaining  heat  should  be  almost  immediately 
produced  after  the  ingestion  of  food  into  the  stomach,  is  to  be  ac- 
counted for,  not  merely  by  that  augmented  activity  and  energy  of 
the  general  circulation  which  accompanies  the  digestive  process,  but 
also  by  the  rapidity  with  which  nutrient  matters  find  their  way  into 
the  blood, — the  turbidity  of  the  serum,  consequent  upon  the  intro- 
duction of  fatty  substances,  having  been  observed  as  early  as  half- 
an-hour  after  the  meal  of  which  they  have  formed  part.1 

116.  The  admission  of  these  matters  into  the  current  of  the  cir- 
culation cannot  be  discovered  to  produce  any  effect  upon  the  system 
in   general,  otherwise   than  by  sustaining  the  temperature  of  the 
body.     In  fact,  they  seem  to  be  the  legitimate  pabulum  for  the  com- 
bustive  process,  just  as  Albuminous  matters  constitute  the  pabulum 
for  the  formative   processes  whereby  the    tissues    are  generated. 
When  they  are  present  in  excess,  the  superfluity  is  withdrawn  by 
the  production  of  adipose  tissue ;  which  stores  up  the  fatty  matters 
for  future  use.     When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  supply  is  not  equiva- 
lent to  the  consumption  required  for  the  maintenance  of  the  heat  of 
the  body,  the  fatty  matters  which  are  among  the  normal  constituents 
of  the  blood  are  first  drawn  upon  ]  and  as  the  proportion  of  these 
is  diminished,  it  is  supplied  from  the  contents  of  the  cells  of  adi- 
pose2 tissue.     In  this  manner,  the  animal  temperature  is  kept  up 

1  See,  for  the  experiments  on  which  several  of  the  foregoing  statements 
are  founded,  the  paper  01"  Drs.  Buchanan  and  R.  L\  Thomson,  in  the  Medi- 
sal  Gazette,  Oct.  10th,  1845. 

a  Adipose  —  fatty. 


IN     SUSTAINING     THE     VITAL     POWERS.         101 

nearly  to  its  usual  standard,  even  in  spite  of  the  total  deprivation  of 
food,  so  long  as  uncousumed  fatty  matter  remains  in  the  body;  but 
death  then  speedily  takes  place,  in  consequence  of  the  cooling  of  the 
body,  unless  the  temperature  be  sustained  by  external  warmth. 
And  death  may  result  also  from  the  subjection  of  the  body  to  a  very 
low  temperature,  whilst  there  is  still  much  fatty  matter  left  in  the 
tissues ;  as  if  this  matter  could  not  be  re-introduced  into  the  circu- 
lating current,  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  supply  the  demand  for  an 
extraordinary  quantity  of  heat-producing  pabulum.  Further,  when 
the  store  of  fatty  matter  has  been  entirely  exhausted,  and  the  ani- 
mal has  nothing  whatever  to  fall  back  upon,  it  is  requisite  that  the 
supplies  of  new  material  introduced  into  the  system  should  suffer 
no  intermission ;  for  immediately  that  they  are  exhausted,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body  begins  to  fall,  and  death  speedily  supervenes 
unless  a  fresh  supply  be  afforded.1 

117.  We  are  now  prepared,  then,  to  inquire  into  the  question, 
how  far  Alcohol  may  be  advantageously  employed  habitually  as  a 
heat-producing  material ;  and  whether  there  are  any  peculiar  or  ex- 
traordinary circumstances,  under  which  it  is  to  be  preferred  to  others. 
And  as  one  means  of  arriving  at  the  truth  on  this  point,  we  must 
examine  more  particularly  into  the  influence  of  the  introduction  of 
alcohol  into  the  blood,  upon  the  respiratory  process.     For  our  know- 
ledge upon  this  point,  we  are  chiefly  indebted  to  the  experiments  of 
Dr.  Prout  and  to  Vierordt.     The  former  states 2  that  Alcohol  and 
all  liquors  containing  it  which   he  had   tried,  have  the  remarkable 
power  of  diminisliing  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  ex- 
pired air,  much  more  than  any  thing  else  which  he  had  made  the 
subject  of  experiment;  this  effect  being  most  decided,  when  the 
liquor  was  taken  upon  an  empty  stomach.     The  latter 8  fully  con- 
firms Dr.  Prout's  observations ;  having  found  that,  in  four  experi- 
ments, the  per-centage  of  carbonic  acid  fell,  after  from  half  to  a 
whole  bottle  of  wine  had  been  taken,  from  4-54  to  4-01 ;  and  that 
this  effect  lasted  between  one  and  two  hours.     He  further  found 
that,  when  he  drank  wine  with  his  dinner,  the  usual  increase  in  the 
per-centage  of  carbonic  acid  expired  after  a  full  meal  did  not  take 
place. 

118.  These  facts  are  of  great  importance.     For  although  it  may 
be  very  possible  that,  as  suggested  by  Liebig,  the  increased  forma- 
tion of  water,  which  will  occur  when  Alcohol  is  the  combustivo 
material,  compensates  for  the  diminution  in  the  amount  of  carbonio 
acid  expired,  and  thus  the  normal  amount  of  heat  may  be  generated, 
— yet  there  are  clear  indications  that,  when  thus  present  in  the 

1  For  the  experiments  on  which  the  foregoing  statements  are  founded, 
see  the  work  of  M.  Chossat,  entitled  "  Rechercbes  sur  1'Inanition. 
a  Annals  of  Philosophy,  vols.  ii.  and  iv. 
3  Physiologic  ties  Athmeus,  &c. 
9* 


102         SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

blood,  with  other  materials  which  ought  to  be  excreted,  alcohol 
exerts  an  injurious  influence,  by  retarding  their  combustiou.  This 
it  will  do  in  two  ways;  first,  by  taking  their  place  as  the  more 
readily  combustible  material ;  and  secondly,  in  virtue  of  the  anti- 
septic '  influence  which  it  exerts  upon  other  substances,  preventing 
or  retarding  chemical  changes  in  them.  That  such  is  the  case, 
appears  from  the  experiments  of  Bouchardat ;  who  found  that,  when 
alcohol  is  introduced  into  the  system  in  excess,  the  blood  in  the 
arteries  presents  the  aspect  of  venous  blood,  showing  that  it  has 
been  prevented  from  undergoing  the  proper  oxygenating  2  process.3 
And  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Prout  afford  additional  support  to  this 
conclusion ;  for  he  observed  that  no  sooner  had  the  effects  of  the 
alcohol  passed  off4  (which  they  did  in  his  case  with  frequent  yawn- 
ings,  and  a  sensation  as  if  he  had  just  awoke  from  sleep),  than  the 
amount  of  carbonic  acid  exhaled  rises  much  above  the  natural 
standard  —  thus  giving,  it  would  seem,  unequivocal  evidence  of  the 
previous  abnormal  retention  of  carbonaceous  matter  in  the  system. 

119.  From  the  foregoing  considerations,  then,  we  may  conclude 
that  the  effects  of  Alcohol  as  a  heat-producing  material,  will  only 
be  advantageously  experienced,  when  the  blood  does  not  contain  a 
supply  of  other  matters  waiting  for  removal  by  the  respiratory  pro- 
cess ;  and  this,  we  believe,  will  be  found  entirely  conformable  to 
experience ;  the  greatest  assistance  being  derived  from  it,  when  the 
body  is  exposed  for  a  time  to  severe  cold,  after  a  long  previous  fast, 
and  when,  for  the  reasons  already  given,  the  heat-producing  power 
is  much  less  than  usual,  even  although  there  should  be  no  lack 
of  material  stored  up  in  the  body.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
following  incident,  which  Dr.  Macnish  relates  of  himself.5  "  I  was 
travelling  on  the  top  of  the  Caledonian  Coach,  during  an  intensely 
cold  day,  towards  the  end  of  November,  1821.  We  left  Inverness 
at  five  in  the  morning,  when  it  was  nearly  pitch  dark,  and  when  the 
thermometer  probably  stood  at  18°  Fahr.  I  was  disappointed  of  an 
inside  seat,  and  was  obliged  to  take  one  on  the  top,  where  there 
were  nine  outside  passengers  besides  myself,  mostly  sportsmen  re- 
turning from  their  campaigns  in  the  moors.  From  being  obliged  to 
get  up  so  early,  and  without  having  taken  any  refreshment,  the  cold 
was  truly  dreadful,  and  set  fear-noughts,  fur-caps,  and  hosiery,  alike 

1  Antiseptic  —  preventing  the  occurrence  of  putrefaction. 
0  Oxygenating — supplying  with  oxygen,  which  is  the  vitalizing  principle 
of  the  blood. 

3  This  result  has  been  also  noticed  as  a  consequence  of  the  inhalation  of 
the  vapours  of  Ether  and  of  Chloroform,  which  are  allied  to  Alcohol  in  com- 
position and  properties ;  and  in  cases  in  which  the  state  of  Anaesthesia  has 
>jeen  very  profound,  the  temperature  of  the  body  has  undergone  a  con- 
siderable depression. 

4  Sailors  can  generally  tell  when  the  "  grog  is  out  of  them." 
*  Anatomy  of  Drunkenness,  p.  307. 


IN    SUSTAINING    THE    VITAL    POWERS.  103 

at  defiance.  So  situated,  and  whirling  along  at  the  rate  of  nearly 
nine  miles  an  hour,  with  a  keen  east  wind  blowing  upon  us  from  the 
snow-covered  hills,  I  do  not  exaggerate  when  I  say  that  some  of  us, 
at  least,  owed  our  lives  to  ardent  spirits.  The  cold  was  so  unsuffer- 
able,  that  on  arriving  at  the  first  stage  we  were  nearly  frozen  to 
death.  Our  feet  were  perfectly  benumbed;  and  our  hands,  fortified 
as  they  were  with  warm  gloves,  little  better.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, we  all  instinctively  called  for  spirits,  and  took  a  glass  each 
of  raw  whiskey,  and  a  little  bread.  The  effect  was  perfectly 
magical ;  the  heat  diffused  itself  over  the  system,  and  we  continued 
comparatively  warm  and  comfortable,  till  our  arrival  at  Aviemore 
Inn,  where  we  breakfasted.  This  practice  was  repeated  several 
times  during  the  journey,  and  always  with  the  same  good  effect. 
When  at  any  time  the  cold  became  excessive,  we  had  recourse  to  our 
dram,  which  insured  us  warmth  and  comfort  for  the  next  twelve  or 
fourteen  miles,  without  on  any  occasion,  producing  the  slightest 
feeling  of  intoxication.  Nor  had  the  spirits  which  we  took,  any 
bad  effects  either  upon  the  other  passengers  or  myself.  On  the 
contrary,  we  were  all,  so  far  as  I  could  learn,  much  the  better  for 
it ;  nor  can  there  be  a  doubt,  that  without  spirits,  or  some  other 
stimulating  liquor,  the  consequences  of  such  severe  weather  would 
have  been  highly  prejudicial  to  most  of  us."  —  This  last  statement 
cannot  be  admitted  without  an  important  reservation,  sufficient  to 
invalidate  any  inference  drawn  from  this  or  similar  cases  as  to  the 
necessity  for  alcoholic  liquors  for  the  maintenance  of  the  animal 
heat  under  exposure  to  severe  cold.  For  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  party  started  on  their  journey  after  a  fast  of  several  hours,  no 
food  having  been  taken  that  morning;  and  there  is  every  reason  to 
believe  that  if  Dr.  Macnish  and  his  companions  had  breakfasted 
heartily  before  the  commencement  of  their  journey,  they  would  not 
have  found  it  necessary  to  have  had  such  frequent  recourse  to  the 
spirit-bottle;  easily-digested  solid  food,  especially  such  as  includes 
oleaginous  matter,  taken  in  conjunction  with  hot  liquids  (especially 
Coffee),  being  at  least  as  efficacious  as  a  heat-producing  material,  as 
alcoholic  liquors  can  be.  In  proof  of  this  assertion,  we  shall  now 
cite  a  series  of  facts  which  are,  we  conceive,  quite  adequate  to 
demonstrate  it. 

120.  In  the  first  place,  the  author  may  relate  his  own  experience 
of  a  journey  performed  on  the  outside  of  a  stage-coach  from  Exeter 
to  Bristol,  on  the  20th  of  January,  1838,  a  day  memorable  for  the 
severity  of  its  temperature,  and  for  that  remarkable  prediction  of 
the  occurrence  which  gave  a  temporary  celebrity  to  "  Murphy's  Al- 
manack/' The  traveller,  as  in  the  preceding  case,  was  "  whirled 
along  at  the  rate  of  nearly  nine  miles  an  hour "  (which  in  these 
days  of  railroad  speed  must  be  accounted  but  a  snail's  pace);  and 
though  not  exposed  to  "a  keen  east  wind  from  the  snow-covered 


1 04         SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

hills,"  was  subjected  to  a  much  lower  atmospheric  temperature,  the 
thermometer  having  stood  during  the  day  at  8°,  or  twenty-four  de- 
grees below  freezing  point.  Having  fortified  himself  with  a  hearty 
breakfast,  however,  and  having  been  in  some  measure  previously 
inured  to  the  cold  by  a  severe  frost  of  a  fortnight's  duration,  he  did  not 
suffer  from  it  to  any  extraordinary  degree  ;  and  with  the  aid  of  a  fresh 
supply  of  food  at  dinner,  he  arrived  at  his  journey's  end  without  any 
greater  degree  of  numbness  of  the  extremities,  than  a  short  exposure 
to  the  genial  warmth  of  a  good  fire  subsequently  removed.  No  fer- 
mented liquor  was  taken  by  the  writer  on  this  journey;  and  he 
cannot  think  that  he  could  have  derived  any  other  benefit  from  it, 
than  that,  by  accelerating  the  general  circulation,  it  might  have  pos- 
sibly kept  up  a  more  rapid  flow  of  blood  through  the  surface  and 
extremities.  But  this  would  have  been  a  doubtful  benefit,  if  at  the 
same  time  the  combustion  of  the  materials  supplied  by  the  food  had 
been  retarded  by  the  presence  of  the  alcohol  in  the  blood. 

121.  The  writer  has  heard  many  of  the  now  almost  extinct  race 
of  Stage-coachmen, — who  had  been  induced  to  give  up  their  former 
habit  of  imbibing  a  glass  of  ale  or  brandy-and-water  at  every  stage, 
and  to  substitute  an  occasional  cup  of  hot  coffee  and  a  rasher  of 
toasted  bacon, — speak  so  decidedly  in  favour  of  the  superior  efficacy 
of  the  latter  system,  that  he  doubts  if  any  man  who  had  the  resolu- 
tion to  adopt  it,  ever  returned  to  his  old  habits  except  from  the 
love  of  liquor. 

121.  Experience  on  a  much  larger  scale,  and  under  a  greater 
severity  of  cold,  leads  to  the  same  conclusions.  The  Esquimaux, 
Greenlander,  or  Canadian,  relies  upon  his  solid  aliment,  which  con- 
tains a  considerable  amount  of  oleaginous  matter,  for  his  power  of 
resisting  cold ;  and  when  amply  supplied  with  food,  does  not  dread 
the  exposure  of  his  person  to  cold  of  the  greatest  severity.  Thus 
Captain  Parry  mentions  with  surprise  that  he  saw  an  Esquimaux 
female  uncover  her  bosom,  and  give  her  child  suck,  in  the  open  air, 
when  its  temperature  was  forty  degrees  below  zero.  And  Sir  J. 
Richardson,  in  a  letter  to  the  writer,  states  that  "  plenty  of  food 
and  good  digestion  are  the  best  sources  of  heat/'  and  that  "  a  Ca- 
nadian with  seven  or  eight  pounds  of  good  beef  or  venison  in  his 
stomach,  will  resist  the  greatest  degree  of  natural  cold,  in  the  open 
air,  and  thinly  clad,  if  there  be  not  a  strong  wind."  The  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Arctic  regions  appear  to  have  a  natural  relish  for  the 
very  oleaginous  food,  which  Nature  has  provided  for  them,  in  the 
whales,  seals,  bears,  and  other  animals  upon  which  they  chiefly 
subsist ;  and  this  taste  is  acquired  by  Europeans  when  exposed  to 
the  same  conditions.  Thus  Dr.  King,  who  accompanied  Sir  George 
Back  in  his  over-land  expedition  in  search  of  Sir  John  lloss,  in- 
formed the  author  that  whereas  he  had  been  previously  accustomed 
to  reject  every  particle  of  fat,  owing  to  the  dislike  he  felt  for  it;  he 


IN     SUSTAINING     T  II  E     VITAL     POWERS.  105 

found  himself  able,  during  his  Arctic  journey,  to  eat  any  amount  of 
it  with  relish,  and  even  experienced  a  positive  craving  for  it;  and 
his  experience  led  him  to  consider  himself  as-  far  better  fortified 
against  the  cold  by  the  use  of  an  oleaginous  diet,  than  by  that  of  frr- 
inented  liquors. — Testimony  to  the  same  effect  is  given  by  Dr.  J. 
D.  Hooker,  who  was  one  of  the  medical  officers  in  the  Antarctic  expe- 
dition under  the  command  of  Sir  James  Ross.  He  says,  in  a  letter 
to  the  author, — u  Several  of  the  men  on  board  our  ship,  and  amongst 
them  some  of  the  best,  never  touched  grog  during  one  or  more  of 
the  antarctic  cruises.  They  were  not  one  whit  the  worse  for  their 
abstinence,  but  enjoyed  the  same  perfect  health  that  all  the  crew 
did  throughout  the  four  years'  voyage.  Many  of  our  men  laid  in 
large  stocks  of  Coffee ;  and  when  practicable  had  it  made  for  them 
after  the  watch  on  deck.  These  men,  I  believe,  would  willingly 
have  given  up  their  spirits  in  exchange  for  coffee ;  but  we  could  not 
ensure  them  the  latter  on  the  requisite  occasions." 

122.  The  foregoing  statements  appear  sufficient  to  prove  that  a 
sufficient  supply  of  Heat-producing  food  effects  all  that  can  be  attri- 
buted to  Alcoholic  liquors  in  sustaining  the  heat  of  the  body ;  but 
we  shall  now  go  further,  and  endeavour  to  establish  the  position, 
that  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  is  positively  injurious,  when  the 
exposure  to  cold  is  prolonged,  and  especially  when  muscular  exer- 
tion is  required.  Thus  Dr.  Hooker  says,  in  the  communication  just 
cited  ; — "  I  do  think  that  the  use  of  spirits  in  cold  weather  is  gene- 
rally prejudicial.  I  speak  from  my  own  experience.  Ifc  is  very 
pleasant.  The  glass  of  grog  warms  the  mouth,  the  throat,  and  the 
abdomen ;  and  this,  when  one  is  wet  and  cold,  with  no  fire,  and  just 
before  turning  into  damp  blankets,  is  very  enticing.  But  it  never 
did  me  one  atom  of  good;  the  extremities  are  not  warmed  by  it; 
and  when  a  continuance  of  exertion  or  endurance  is  called  for,  the 
spirit  does  harm,  for  then  you  are  colder  or  more  fatigued  a  quarter 
or  half  an  hour  after  it,  than  you  would  have  been  without  it." 
The  testimony  of  others  who  have  been  subjected  to  still  more 
trying  exposure,  is  to  the  same  effect.  Thus  Sir  J.  Richardson 
states,  as  the  result  of  his  most  severe  experience, — "  I  am  quite 
satisfied  that  spirituous  liquors,  though  they  give  a  temporary  sti- 
mulus, diminish  the  power  of  resisting  cold.  We  found  on  our 
Northern  journey,  that  tea  was  much  more  refreshing  than  wine 
or  spirits,  which  we  soon  ceased  to  care  for,  while  the  craving  for 
the  tea  increased.  Liebig,  I  believe,  considers  that  spirits  are  ne- 
cessary to  northern  nations,  to  diminish  the  waste  of  the  solids  of 
the  body,  and  that  tea  is  less  useful ;  but  my  experience  leads  mo 
to  a  contrary  conclusion/7  Dr.  King's  testimony  was  precisely  to 
the  same  effect.  In  fact  it  would  appear  that  very  general  concur- 
rence exists  on  this  point  among  all  those  qualified  to  form  an  un- 
prejudiced judgment  in  regard  to  it;  since  we  find  that  in  all  tta 


106         SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

recent  over-laud  Arctic  expeditions,  sent  out  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment, it  has  been  expressly  provided  that  no  fermented  liquors  shall 
be  used  by  the  parties  who  proceed  upon  them;  and  that  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  have  for  many  years  entirely  excluded 
spirits  from  the  fur  countries  to  the  north,  over  which  they  have 
exclusive  control,  "  to  the  great  improvement,"  as  Sir  J.  Richardson 
states,  "  of  the  health  and  morals  of  their  Canadian  servants  and  of 
the  Indian  tribes/'  ' 

123.  That  such  are  the  teachings  of  sufficiently  prolonged  expe- 
rience, not  merely  in  the  frigid  zone,  but  wherever  the  same  condi- 
tions present  themselves,  will  appear  from  the  two  following  state- 
ments.— It  is  mentioned  by  Dr.  Forbes,2  as  the  result  of  his  personal 
enquiries  from  the  guides  at  Chamouni,  that  when  they  are  out  upon 
their  winter  expeditions  among  the  Alpine  snows,  they  never  find  it 
advantageous  to  take  any  thing  stronger  than  the  weak  wines  of  the 
country ;  considering  the  use  of  spirits  to  be  decidedly  inimical  to 
their  power  of  sustaining  exertion  in  an  atmosphere  of  very  low  tem- 
perature.— The  writer  had  the  opportunity,  about  a  twelvemonth 
since,  of  conversing  with  a  very  intelligent  man  of  above  seventy 
years  of  age,  residing  at  Wareham  in  Dorsetshire,  who  had  spent 
more  than  fifty  winters  as  a  fowler;  in  which  vocation  he  had  been 
exposed  to  the  utmost  severity  of  the  winter's  cold ;  since  it  can  of 
course  be  most  profitably  pursued,  when  the  largest  number  of  birds 
are  driven  southwards  by  the  intensity  of  the  frost  in  their  northern 
residence.  He  stated  that  he  had  frequently  been  out  for  a  fortnight 
at  a  time,  without  lying  down  save  in  his  little  boat,  and  scarcely 
ever  obtaining  warmth  from  a  fire  during  that  period }  and  notwith- 
standing such  severe  trials,  he  was  a  remarkably  hale  and  vigorous 
man  for  his  years.  Being  himself  the  proprietor  of  a  small  public- 
house,  he  cannot  be  supposed  to  have  any  prejudice  against  the  use 
of  fermented. liquors,  in  which  he  indulges  in  moderation  j  but  his 
testimony  to  the  writer  was  most  explicit  to  the  following  effect ; — 

1  To  the  above  testimony,  the  author  may  add  the  following,  with  which 
Mr.  Eaton  has  favoured  him. — The  Rev.  Richard  Knill,  for  many  years  a 
Missionary  at  Petersburgh,  stated  in  a  Public  Meeting,  in  regard  to  the 
delusion  which  prompted  people  to  use  ardent  spirits  "to  keep  out  the 
cold,"  that  the  Russians  had  long  since  found  out  the  injurious  effects  of 
taking  them  in  very  cold  weather.  When  a  regiment  was  about  to  march, 
orders  were  issued  over-night  that  no  spirits  were  to  be  taken  on  the  fol- 
lowing morning ;  and  to  ascertain  as  far  as  possible  that  the  order  had 
been  complied  with,  it  was  the  practice  of  their  officials  answering  to  our 
corporals,  carefully  to  smell  the  breath  of  every  man  when  assembled  in 
the  morning  before  marching,  and  those  who  were  found  to  have  taken 
spirits  we^e  forthwith  ordered  out  of  the  ranks,  and  prevented  from  march- 
ing on  that  day ;  it  having  been  found  that  such  men  were  peculiarly  subject 
to  he  "frost  bitten,"  and  otherwise  injured. 

9  Physician's  Holiday,  p,  26,  note 


IN     SUSTAINING     THE    VITAL    POWERS.          107 

that  although  the  use  of  ale  or  brandy  might  seem  beneficial  in 
causing  the  cold  to  be  less  felt  at  first,  (so  that  when  out  for  no  more 
than  a  day  or  two,  he  did  not  think  it  necessary  to  abstain  from  it,) 
the  case  was  quite  reversed  when  the  duration  of  the  exposure  wai 
prolonged ;  the  cold  being  then  most  severely  felt,  the  larger  was 
the  proportion  of  fermented  liquors  taken.  And  he  further  stated, 
that  all  the  fowlers  of  his  acquaintance,  who  had  been  accustomed  to 
employ  brandy  with  any  freedom,  whilst  out  on  prolonged  expedi- 
tions, had  died  early ;  he  and  his  brother  (who  had  practised  the 
same  abstinence  as  himself)  having  outlived  nearly  all  their  con 
temporaries. 

124.  Hence  it  may  be   argued  upon  scientific  principles,  that 
whilst  the  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  may  for  a  time  afford  assistance 
in  maintaining  the  heat  of  the  body,  so  as  the  better  to  enable  it  to 
resist  the  influence  of  severe  cold,  they  have  no  such  advantage  over 
Oleaginous  matter,  in  affording  a  pabulum  for  the  respiratory  pro- 
cess, as  sufficiently  compensates  for  their  injurious  effect  in  prevent- 
ing or  retarding  the  oxygenation  of  those  ingredients  of  venous  blood, 
which  ought  to  be  continually  eliminated  by  the  respiratory  process. 
Consequently,  looking  at  the  Chemical  influence  of  alcohol  merely, 
we  might  expect  the  prolonged  employment  of  alcoholic  liquors  to 
induce  such  a  vitiation  of  the  blood,  as  will  impair  its  fitness  for  the 
manifold  purposes  which  it  is  destined  to  answer.     No  such  result 
will  follow  the  ingestion  of  heat-sustaining  food ;  since  this  waits  its 
time  for  the  combustive  operation,  without  interfering  with  the  oxy- 
genation of  other  matters;  and  if  not  itself  consumed,  it  is  stored  up 
within  the  body  until  the  time  of  need.     But  again,  although  the 
stimulating  effect  of  alcoholic  liquors  is  less  during  the  exposure  to 
cold  than  it  is  under  ordinary  circumstances,  yet  it  cannot  be  alto- 
gether prevented  by  the  more  rapid  combustion  which  the  alcohol 
undergoes;  and  it  might  be  anticipated,  therefore,  from  what  w<? 
know  of  the  general  action  of  stimulants,  that  the  depression  which 
follows  upon  their  use  would  render  the  body  peculiarly  obnoxious 
to  the  influence  of  cold ;  so  that,  although  they  may  help  to  keep  up 
the  temperature  of  the  body  for  a  time,  by  imparting  increased 
energy  to  the  circulation,  yet  when  that  energy  is  succeeded  (as  it 
must  be  sooner  or  later)  by  the  opposite  condition,  the  cold  will  be 
felt,  with  greater  intensity. 

125.  The  predictions  thus  based  on  Physiological  principles,  are 
found,  as  we  have  seen,  to  be  in  most  perfect  harmony  with  Expe- 
rience.    For  this  teaches  in  the  first  place,  that  although  Alcoholic 
liquors  may  afford  advantages  equal  or  even  superior,   regarded 
simply  as  material  for  the  combustive  process,  to  those  derivable 
from  solid  food,  those  advantages  are  not  of  long  duration ;  so  that, 
for  enabling  the  body  to  resist  the  continued  influence  of  severe 
cold,  alcoholic  liquors  are  far  inferior  in  potency  to  solid  food 


108         SUPPOSED  USES  OP  ALCOHOL 

And,  secondly,  that  although  the  increase  in  the  energy  of  the 
circulation,  resulting  from  the  stimulating  effect  of  alcoholic  liquors, 
may  prevent  the  depressing  influence  of  the  cold  from  having  its 
ordinary  action  upon  the  system,  provided  that  it  be  exerted  only 
whilst  that  effect  lasts ;  yet  that  after  it  has  subsided,  the  cold  is 
felt  with  augmented  severity,  and  its  action  upon  the  system  is 
proportionately  injurious.1 

126.  The  question  whether  there  are  any  circumstances  under 
which  the  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  can  be  positively  advantageous 
for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  body  to  resist  Cold,  will  be  con- 
sidered in  the  succeeding  chapter  (§§  182-187). 

IV. — ENDURANCE   OF   HEAT. 

126.  Having  thus  concluded  our  enquiry  how  far  the  use  of 
Alcoholic  liquors  is  necessary  or  desirable  for  arming  the  body 
against  the  depressing  effects  of  cold,  we  shall  consider  their  agency 
iu  supporting  the  system  under  the  enervating  influence  of  extreme 
Heat.  The  belief  in  the  existence  of  such  an  agency  is  scarcely 
less  strongly  or  generally  entertained,  than  that  of  their  protective 
power  against  cold ;  but  it  must  be  manifestly  due,  if  it  exist,  to 

1  The  author  has  preferred  basing  his  conclusions  upon  informatior 
which  he  has  obtained  by  his  personal  enquiries.  He  might  easily  havt 
brought  together  a  considerable  amount  of  published  testimony  to  the 
same  effect.  The  following  statements,  contained  in  the  work,  entitled 
"  Bacchus,"  are  in  complete  harmony  with  those  which  he  has  himself 
adduced.  "In  1619,  the  crew  of  a  Danish  ship  of  sixty  men,  well  sup- 
plied with  provision  and  ardent  spirit,  attempted  to  pass  the  winter  at 
Hudson's  Bay;  but  fifty-eight  of  them  died  before  the  spring:  while  in 
the  case  of  an  English  crew  of  twenty-two  men,  in  the  same  circum- 
stances, but  destitute  of  distilled  spirit,  only  two  died.  In  another  in- 
stance of  eight  Englishmen,  also  without  spirituous  liquors,  who  wintered 
in  the  same  bay,  the  whole  survived  and  returned  to  England  ;  and  four 
Russians  left  without  ardent  spirits  or  provisions,  in  Spitzbergen,  lived  for 
a.  period  of  six  years,  and  were  at  length  restored  to  their  country.  In 
the  winter  of  1796,  a  vessel  was  wrecked  on  an  island  off  the  coast  of 
Massachusetts  ;  there  were  seven  persons  on  board  ;  it  was  night ;  five 
of  them  resolved  to  quit  the  wreck  and  seek  shelter  on  shore.  To  prepare 
for  the  attempt,  four  of  them  drank  freely  of  spirits;  the  fifth  would 
drink  none.  They  all  leaped  into  the  water ;  one  was  drowned  before  he 
reached  the  shore ;  the  other  four  came  to  land,  and  in  a  deep  snow  and 
piercing  cold,  directed  their  course  to  a  distant  light.  All  that  drank 
spirits  failed,  and  stopped,  and  froze,  one  after  another;  the  man  that 
drank  none  reached  the  house,  and  about  two  years  ago  was  still  alive." 
(p  374.)  The  evidence  of  Captain  (now  the  Rev.  Dr.)  Scoresby,  who  was 
for  many  years  the  captain  of  a  whaling  ship,  is  precisely  to  the  same 
effect  with  that  of  the  Arctic  travellers  whose  testimony  has  been  already 
cited.  He  gives  it  as  his  decided  opinion  that  spirits  are  injurious  in  cold 
climates;  and  speaks  of  the  reaction  as  especially  pernicious,  in  dimin- 
uhiug  the  power  of  sustaining  cold,  as  well  as  that  of  muscular  exertion. 


IN     SUSTAINING    THE    TITAL    POWERS.          109 

modus  operandi  different  from  that  which  renders  them  ser- 
^iceable  in  the  opposite  condition.  For  it  cannot  be  imagined  that 
they  can  be  of  any  service  by  affording  pabulum  for  the  combustivo 
process,  when  that  process?  is  already  generating  more  heat  thau 
the  body,  exposed  to  a  high  external  temperature,  can  possibly 
need.  Nor  can  it  be  supposed  that  the  loss  of  the  watery  portion 
of  the  blood,  by  the  perspiratory  process,  can  be  in  any  degree  re- 
paired by  the  ingestion  of  alcoholic  liquids.  It  must  be  presumed, 
then,  that  whatever  energy  their  use  may  communicate  to  the  body, 
must  be  derived  from  their  stimulating  properties  ;  and  must  be 
subject  to  these  disadvantages,  which  are  inseparable  from  the 
habitual  enip)  jyment  of  stimulants.  Each  of  these  points,  how- 
ever, require?  a  fuller  examination. 

127.  It  is  well  known  to  the  Physiologist,  that  the  Respiratory 
process  in  warm-blooded  animals  is  much  less  energetic  at  high 
temperatures  than  at  low ;  the  system  having  in  itself  the  power 
of  regulating  the  amount  of  matter  which  it  shall  burn  off,  in 
order  thp,t  its  heat  may  be  kept  up  to  the  proper  standard.  Thus 
it  was  ascertained  by  the  experiments  of  Letellier,'  that  the  amount 
of  carbonic  acid  set  free  by  Birds,  wheu  they  are  breathing  in  an 
atmosphere  of  from  86°  to  106°  Fahr.,  is  scarcely  more  than  one- 
third  of  that  which  they  generate  in  an  a'tmosphere  of  32° ;  and 
by  similar  experiments  upon  small  Mammalia,2  it  was  ascertained 
ihat  they  only  give  off,  between  86°  and  106°,  about  half  as  much 
earbonie  acid,  and  between  59°  and  68°  about  two-thirds  as  much, 
as  they  generate  at  32°.  The  experiments  of  Vierordt3  upon  his 
own  person  lead  to  a  similar  conclusion  in  regard  to  Man ;  although 
the  difference  is  not  so  great.  For  he  states  that  the  average 
amount  of  carbonic  acid  exhaled  by  him  per  minute,  between  the 
temperatures  of  24°  and  47°  Fahr.,  was  18  J  cubic  inches;  whilst 
the  average  between  the  temperatures  of  66°  and  92°  was  but  15f 
cubic  inches.  It  is  obvious,  then,  that  the  demand  for  combustive 
material  at  high  temperatures  must  be  comparatively  small;  and 
that  the  residents  in  hot  countries  cannot  require  the  same  supply 
of  heat-producing  aliment,  as  is  needed  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
frigid  zone.  We  see  this  indicated  in  the  quality  of  the  non- 
azotized 4  material  which  Nature  has  provided  for  their  use ;  for 
whilst  the  dwellers  amid  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  seas  derive  their 
chief  sustenance  from  these  oleaginous  articles  which  have  the 
greatest  heat- producing  power,  the  vast  population  of  the  Equatorial 

1  Comptes  Rendus  Tom.  xx.  p.  795  ;  and  Ann.  de  Chim.  et  de  Phy» 
Tom.  xiii.  p.  478. 

*  Mammalia —  animals  that  suckle  their  young. 
1  Op.  cit.  gg  73-82. 

*  Non-azotized — destitute  of  nitrogen. 

10 


110         SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

region  derives  its  principal  support  from  these  farinaceous,1  vege- 
table products,  whose  non-azotized  portion,  belonging  to  the  sac- 
charine  class,  has  the  lowest  calorific  agency  (§  111). 

128.  It  is  very  necessary,  however,  to  bear  in  mind,  that  the 
Respiratory  process  is  not  one  of  simple  calorification;2  for  it  is  one 
of  the  most  important  of  all  those  excretory  operations,  whereby 
the  waste  or  effete3  matter  of  the  system  is  eliminated4  from  the 
blood.     This,  in  fact,  may  be  regarded  as  the  essential  part  of  the 
function,  which  is  common  to  all  animals;  the  combustion  of  an 
additional  amount  of  hydro-carbonaceous  matter,  for  the  purpose  of 
maintaining  the  temperature  of  the  body  at  a  fixed  standard,  being 
peculiar  to  the  warm-blooded  classes.    It  is  evident,  then,  that  from 
the  diminution  of  the  total  quantity  of   carbonic  acid  exhaled  at 
high 'temperatures,  the  excretory5  part  of  the  respiratory  function 
will  be  more  liable,  than  at  low  or  moderate  temperatures,  to  inter- 
ference from  any  agency  which  still  further  checks  the  oxygenation 
of  the  combustible  matter  of  the  blood. 

129.  Now  as  we  have  found  that,  under  exposure  to  severe  Cold, 
the  stimulating  effects  of  Alcoholic  liquors  (especially  when  taken 
at  intervals,  in  small  quantities  at  a  time),  are  but  little  felt,  the 
alcohol  being  burned  off  before  it  can  accumulate  so  as  to  exert  any 
considerable  influence  on  the  Nervous  system  ;  —  so  might  we  ex- 
pect that,  under  the  influence  of  external  Heat,  when  the  combustive 
process  is  greatly  reduced  in  activity,  the  stimulant  effects  of  alcohol 
should   be   more  rapidly  produced  and  more  powerfully  exerted. 
And  further,  if  the  views  formerly  stated  be  correct  as  to  the  effects 
of  the  absorption  of  alcohol  into  the  blood,  in  preventing  the  elimi- 
nation of  matters  which  ought  to  be  carried  off  by  the  respiratory 
process,  we  should  expect  that  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  in  warm 
climates  would  exert  this  obstructive  influence  in  a  peculiar  degree. — 
Both  these  anticipations  are  confirmed  by  ample  experience,  which 
thus  bears  testimony  to  the  soundness  of  our  principles.     For  it  is 
well  known  that  a  far  smaller  quantity  of  alcoholic  liquor  suffices  to 
produce  intoxication  beneath  a  burning  sun  than  in  a  frosty  atmo- 
sphere ;  so  that  individuals  who  are  not  aware  of  this  fact  sometimes 
become  intoxicated,  without  having  exceeded  the  allowance  which 
they  believed  to  be  perfectly  compatible  with  sobriety.     Again,  it 
has  been  continually  observed  that  when  Alcoholic  liquors  are  taken 
during  the  performance  of  severe  labour  in  an  extremely  high  tern- 

1  Farinaceous  —  of  the  nature  of  meal  or  flour. 

a  Calorification  — producing  heat. 

8  Effete — refuse  matter ;  worn-out  matter. 

*  Eliminated — separated,  removed. 

•  Excretory  —  adapted  to  the  removal  and  expulsion  from  the  body  of  all 
such  matters  as  are  no  longer  adapted  for  its  support,  or  are  of  an  injurious 
uature. 


IN     SUSTAINING    THE    VITAL    POWERS.          Ill 

perature,  their  temporary  stimulation  is  followed  by  a  very  rapid  and 
decided  failure  both  of  nervous  and  muscular  power ;  so  that  men 
who  drink  largely  of  such  liquors  in  the  intervals  of  their  work,  are 
obliged  to  abstain  from  them  whilst  their  labour  is  in  progress. 
This  result  appears  fairly  attributable  to  vitiation  of  the  circulating 
blood,  consequent  upon  the  retention  of  matters  destined  for  excre- 
tion; the  removal  of  which,  by  the  oxygenating  process,  has  been 
obstructed  by  the  presence  of  alcohol.  And  the  same  inference  ap- 
pears legitimately  deducible  from  the  peculiar  tendency  (already 
referred  to,  §§  54,  55,)  which  the  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquors 
in  warm  climates  has  to  engender  diseases  of  the  Liver ;  the  duty 
of  separating  those  hydro-carbonaceous  products  of  the  waste  of  the 
system,  which  are  poisonous  if  retained  in  the  blood,  being  unduly 
thrown  upon  the  liver,  when  their  elimination  by  the  lungs  is  inter- 
fered with. 

130.  That  the  use  of  Alcohol  is  especially  necessary  to  support 
the   system    under   its   excessive   loss    by   Perspiration    at    high 
temperatures,  is   an   idea   so   commonly  held,  that  it   demands  a 
serious  refutation ;  although  the  fallacy  of  the  notion,  that  because 
water  is  drawn  off  from  the  blood  through  the  pores  of  the  skin, 
alcohol  must   be    taken   into   the   stomach    to   replace   it,    would 
appear  self-evident.     The  fundamental  error  seems  to  lie  in  the 
notion,  that  copious  perspiration  in  itself  really  weakens  the  system ; 
whilst  it  is,  in  fact,  nothing  else  than  the  means  by  which  the  ex- 
ternal warmth  is  prevented  from  raising  the  heat  of  the  body  above 
its  normal  standard.     The  determination  of  the  blood  to  the  skin, 
which  that  heat  excites,  appears  to  cause  an  unusual  transudation ' 
of  the  watery  part  of  the  blood  through  the  thin-walled  capillaries2 
of  the  sweat-glands  j  just  as  certain  diuretic 3  medicines  increase  the 
quantity  of  water  in  the  urine,  by  causing  an  increased  determina- 
tion of  blood  to  the  kidneys ;  but  with  this  large  amount  of  watery 
fluid,  very  little  solid  matter  passes  off,  —  none,  in  fact,  but  what  is 
purely  excrementitious. 

131.  That  Perspiration,  however  abundant,  has  in  itself  no  weak- 
ening effect,  —  except  by  diminishing  the  quantity  of  water  in  the 
blood  (which  is  readily  supplied  by  absorption  from  the  stomach), — 
appears  from  the  fact,  that  if  persons  exposed  to  a  very  high  tem- 
perature make  no  bodily  exertion,  they  do  not  experience  any  loss 
of  vigour,  if  copiously  supplied  with  cold  water.     In  fact,  such  ex- 
posure may  be  made  to  conduce  very  decidedly  to  the  invigoration 
of  the  system.     All  travellers  who  have  tried  the  Russian  baths, 
speak  of  the  feelings  of  renovation  which  the  copious  perspiration. 

1  Transudation  —  passing  through  as  perspiration. 

a  Capillaries  —  very  minute  vessels,  like  hairs. 

1  Diuretic  —  that  which  increases  the  secretion  of  urine. 


112         SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

and  the  subsequent  plunge  into  cold  water,  produce  in  the  wearied 
frame.  And  those  who  have  given  a  fair  trial  to  the  Hydropathic 
treatment,  in  appropriate  cases,  are  unanimous  in  the  same  testimony. 
The  writer  has  himself  been  in  a  stove-room,  in  which  delicate 
females  were  accustomed  to  remain  for  half-an-hour  or  more,  when 
it  was  heated  to  a  temperature  of  from  140°  to  170°  Fahr.  j  their 
wrappings  becoming  saturated  by  copious  perspiration,  the  material 
for  which  was  supplied  by  the  water  administered  to  them  internally 
from  time  to  time ;  and  he  has  had  ample  assurance  to  the  effect, 
that  this  process,  when  followed  by  the  cold  plunge,  had  usually  an 
invigorating  influence,  which  quite  sets  aside  the  idea  that  the  act 
of  perspiration  is  in  itself  exhausting,  or  that  it  removes  from  the 
system  any  thing  which  it  can  be  requisite  for  alcohol  to  supply. 

132.  The  peculiar  fatigue  which  usually  results  from  muscular 
exertion  at  a  high  temperature,  is  generally  set  down  as  the  conse- 
quence of  the  excessive  perspiration ;  although  the  fact  is,  that  the 
fatigue  is  chiefly  to  be  attributed  to  the  interference  with  the  vapor- 
ous or  "  insensible"  transpiration,  which  is  produced  by  the  accu- 
mulation of  liquid  or  (l  sensible"  perspiration  cm  the  surface  of  the 
skin,  and  by  the  saturation  of  the  garments  in  contact  with  it.    For 
the  same  fatigue  is  experienced  when  the  atmosphere  is  loaded  with 
dampness,  even  at  a  low  temperature }  and  it  has  been  the  uniform 
result  of  the  attempt  to  use  any  muscular  effort,  when  the  body  has 
been  clothed  in  water-proof  garments  made  after  the  fashion  of  or- 
dinary clothes,  so  as  not  only  to  keep  out  the  rain,  but  to  keep  in 
the  insensible  perspiration.    In  either  case  the  effect  is  the  same ; — 
the  due  vaporization  of  fluid  at  the  surface  of  the  skin  is  checked ; 
the  cooling  influence  of  the  perspiration  is  not  exerted ;  and  the  heat 
of  the  body  itself  is  injuriously  augmented.1     And  as  an  augmenta- 
tion of  from  11°  to  13°  in  the  temperature  of  a  warm-blooded  ani- 
mal produces  an  in  variably  fa  tal  result,  so  can  it  be  readily  under- 
stood that  an  increase  of  2°  or  3°  must  be  attended  with  injurious 
consequences,  so  long  as  it  lasts. 

133.  Among  these  consequences  we  may  probably  rank  a  still 
further  diminution  in  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  exhaled  from 
the  lungs  j  as  well  as  an  obstruction  to  the  cutaneous  respiration,2 

1  Thus  it  was  found  by  MM.  Delaroche  and  Berger,  that  when  animals 
were  exposed  to  the  temperature  of  120°,  their  bodies  being  enveloped  in 
close  boxes,  whilst  their  heads  were  free,  a  thermometer  placed  in  the 
mouth  showed  an  increase  of  6°  in  the  heat  of  the  body,  in  the  course  of 
seventeen  minutes ;  this  elevation  being  obviously  due  to  the  obstruction 
to  the  transpiration  from  the  surface  of  the  body.  When  by  continued 
exposure  to  a  heated  atmosphere  saturated  with  moisture,  the  temperature 
of  the  body  was  raised  from  11°  to  13°  above  the  natural  standard,  the 
animals  uniformly  died. 

a  Cutaneous  respiration — discharge  of  vaporous  and  gaseous  matter  by 
the  skin. 


IN     SUSTAINING     THE     VITAL    POWERS.  113 

which,  although  its  proportional  amount  has  not  yet  been  satisfac- 
torily ascertained,  is  certainly  of  no  mean  importance  in  the  depura- 
tion '  of  the  blood.  Hence  an  accumulation  of  excrementitious2 
matters  will  take  place  in  the  circulating  fluid,  such  as  affords  quite 
a  sufficient  explanation  of  the  peculiar  fatigue  which  is  experienced 
when  muscular  exertion  is  called  for  in  a  heated  atmosphere  already 
charged  with  moisture.  And  we  should  expect  that  such  exertion 
could  be  performed  with  much  less  feeling  of  exhaustion  in  an  atmo- 
sphere of  dry  air,  though  of  very  high  temperature, — such  as  that 
of  glass-houses,  gas-works,  or  foundries, — than  in  the  less  heated 
atmosphere  of  tropical  countries,  which  usually  contains  a  considera- 
ble amount  of  watery  vapour.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  fact ;  and 
as  a  far  larger  amount  of  liquid  will  be  carried  off  by  insensible 
transpiration 3  in  the  former  case  than  in  the  latter,  it  proves  the 
correctness  of  our  position,  that  it  is  not  the  loss  of  liquid  from  the 
skin,  which  is  the  cause  of  the  peculiar  exhaustion  that  results  from 
muscular  exertion  in  a  heated  atmosphere;4  and  that  we  are  to  look 
for  the  source  of  that  exhaustion  in  the  elevation  of  the  temperature 
of  the  body  itself,  which  will  be  produced  with  peculiar  facility  in  a 
damp  and  heated  atmosphere ;  and  in  the  accumulation  of  excre- 
mentitious matters  in  the  blood,  which  will  be  especially  likely  to 
>,ake  place  when  their  elimination6  through  the  lungs  is  being 
Checked,  at  the  same  time  that  an  increased  amount  is  being  gene- 
rated by  the  waste  of  the  muscular  tissues. 

134.  If,  then,  our  fundamental  positions  have  been  just,  and  our 
argument  correct,  we  should  infer  that,  putting  aside  their  peculiar 
influence  upon  the  nervous  system,  the  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors 
during  muscular  exertion  in  a  heated  atmosphere,  and  especially 
when  that  atmosphere  is  charged  with  moisture,  can  be  nothing  else 
than  injurious ;  as  tending  to  interfere  still  more  with  that  elimina- 
tion of  excrementitious  matters  from  the  blood,  which  is  peculiarly 
required  when  a  continual  production  of  such  matters  is  taking  place 
through  the  disintegration  of  the  nervous  and  muscular  tissues  con- 
sequent upon  their  functional  activity,  and  which  is  already  hetarded 
by  the  diminution  in  the  activity  of  respiration.  We  shall  presently 
find  that  experience  is  here  also  in  accordance  with  theory;  the  re- 
sult of  many  trials  having  shown,  that  severe  and  long-continued 

Depuration  —  purification. 

4  Excremenlitious  —  worn-out,  refuse,  deleterious  matters,  which,  unless 
regularly  removed  from  the  blood,  impair  its  purity 

3  Insensible  transpiration  —  the  continued  discharge  of  vapour  by  the  skin 
in  an  imperceptible  form. 

4  We  are  of  course  supposing  throughout,  that  water  is  freely  supplied 
in  both  cases.     The  exhaustion  produced  by  the  undue  diminution  of  the 
iluids  of  the  body,  indicated  by  excessive  thirst,  is  of  quite  a  different 
Character. 

»  Elimination — separation;  removal. 

10* 


114  SUPPOSED    USES    OP    ALCOHOL 

exertion  in  tropical  climates  can  be  better  sustained  without  alco- 
holic liquors,  than  with  their  habitual  use. 

1 35.  The  stimulative  effects,  from  which  Alcoholic  liquors  derive 
their  reputation  as  supporters  of  bodily  vigour,  during  habitual  ex- 
posure to  a  heated  atmosphere,  are  exerted  in  two  ways  ;  in  the  first 
place,  by  giving  temporary  assistance  to  the  digestive  process ;  and 
secondly,  by  increasing,  for  a  time,  the  nervous  and  muscular  power. 
It  is  commonly  supposed  that  the  diminution  of  appetite,  which  is 
experienced  by  most  persons  who  change  their  residence  from  a 
temperate  country  to  a  hot  one,  is  the  result  of  the  enervating  in- 
fluence of  the  climate  ;  whereas  the  fact  is  evident  to  those  who  take 
into  account  the  proportionally  smaller  amount  of  carbonic  acid 
exhaled  as  the  external  temperature  rises,  that  the  diminished  appe- 
tite chiefly  results  from  diminution  in  the  demand  for  combustive 
material ;  and  that  it  ought,  therefore,  to  be  taken  as  an  indication 
of  the  propriety  of  lessening  the  amount  of  food  ingested,  rather 
than  of  forcing  the  stomach  to  augmented  activity  for  the  purpose 
of  disposing  of  the  superfluity  which  it  has  taken  in.     All  medical 
authorities  on  the  diseases  of  tropical  climates  are  in  accord  upon 
this  point, — that,  next  to  the  injury  derived  from  the  abuse  of  fer- 
mented liquors,  excess  in  diet  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  of  those 
sources  of  disease  which  arise  out  of  the  personal  habits  of  the  in- 
dividual j  and  such  excess  is  in  great  degree  due  to  the  use  of  alco- 
holic stimulants  as  an  artificial  provocative  to  the  appetite,  whereby 
the  blood  becomes  charged  with  more  alimentary  material  than  it 
can  rightly  dispose  of;  so  that  the  diminution  in  the  activity  of  the 
respiratory  process  throws  the  elimination  of  this  superfluity  upon 
the  liver,  which  organ  consequently  becomes  peculiarly  liable  to 
functional  disorder. 

136.  We   have    continual  opportunities   of  noticing    the    same 
sequence  of  phenomena  in  our  own  country,  though  in  a  less  marked 
degree.     A  diminution  in  the  appetite  is  experienced  by  most  per- 
sons during  the  heat  of  summer;  and  if  the  warning  be  not  lost, 
the  amount  of  food  ingested  is  proportioned  to  the  demand.     Bui 
those  who  from  habit  continue  to  take  in  their  usual  supply,  are 
extremely  liable  to  be  warned  of  the  impropriety  of  such  a  course, 
by  hepatic  derangement;  and  the  bilious  diarrhoea  which  is  so  com- 
mon in  the  latter  part  of  summer,  and  which  is  connected  in  the 
popular    mind  with  the  "plum  season/'   (although  it    frequently 
affects  persons  who  have  altogether  abstained  from  fruit,)  seems  to 
find  a  rational  explanation  in  the  accumulation  of  excrernentitious 
matter,  which  must  be  the  consequence  of  habitual  excess  in  diet, — 
especially  when  the  stomach  is  stimulated  by  alcoholic  liquors  to 
digest  more  than  could  be  appropriated  without  such  artificial  aid. 

187.  There  is  no  reason  whatever  to  believe  that  (with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  difference  in  regard  to  amount  which  has  been  already 


IN     SUSTAINING     THE    VITAL    POWERS.  115 

remarked  upon,  §  129,)  the  stimulating  influence  of  Alcoholic  liquors 
upon  the  nervous  system,  whereby  it  is  enabled  to  put  forth  increased 
power  so  long  as  this  influence  lasts,  is  exerted  in  any  other  mode, 
when  the  body  is  habitually  exposed  to  a  high  temperature,  than 
that  in  which  it  operates  under  ordinary  circumstances.  That  the 
excitement  must  be  followed  by  subsequent  depression,  is  as  true  in 
India,  as  in  England  ;  and  that  this  excitement,  if  habitually  had  re- 
course to,  will  be  followed  in  hot  climates  by  consequences  even  more 
injurious  than  in  cold  or  temperate  regions,  might  be  inferred  from 
all  that  has  been  already  stated  in  regard  to  its  peculiar  unsuitable- 
ness  when  the  activity  of  the  respiratory  process  is  diminished. 

138.  We  shall  now  proceed  to  inquire,  therefore,  how  far  the 
experience,  both  of  individuals  and  of  large  bodies  of  men,  supports 
the  idea,  that  Abstinence  from  alcoholic  stimulants,  or  at  most  the 
very  sparing  use  of  them,  is  favourable  to  the  endurance  of  extreme 
heat,  especially  when  great  bodily  exertion  is  required.     And  we 
shall  first  cite  the  evidence  of  the  late  Mr.  Gardiner,1  a  well  educated 
surgeon,  who  spent  several  years  of  most  active  exertion  in  the  ex- 
ploration of  the  Botany  of  Brazil,  into  which  country  he  penetrated 
further  than  any  scientific  European  had  previously  done.     During 
three  years'  travelling  in  that  climate,  he  tells  us,2  under  constant 
fatigue  and  exposure  to  vicissitudes  of  weather  and  irregularity  of 
liviny,  his  only  beverage,  besides  water,  was  tea,  of  which  he  had 
laid  in  a  large  stock  previously  to  his  departure  from  Pernambuco. 
He  was  told  when  he  arrived  at  Brazil,  that  he  would  find  it  neces- 
sary to  mix  either  wine  or  brandy  with  the  water  which  he  drank ; 
but  a  very  short  experience  convinced  him,  not  only  that  they  are 
unnecessary,  but  that  they  are   decidedly  hurtful  to  those   whose 
occupations  lead  them  much  into  the  sun.   "  Whoever  drinks  stimu- 
lating liquors,"  he  says,  "  and  travels  day  after  day  in  the  sun,  will 
certainly  suffer  from  headache ;  and  in  countries  where  miasmata 
prevail,  he  will  be  far  more  likely  to  be  attacked  by  the  diseases 
which  are  there  endemic/' 

139.  Equally  explicit  testimony  is  borne  by  Sir  James  Brooke, 
the  enterprising  and  skilful  colonizer  of  Borneo  j  who  speaks  in  his 
*'  Journal  "  of  habitual  abstinence  from  alcoholic  liquors  as  decidedly 
conducive  to  the  maintenance  of  health,  and  of  the  power  of  sus- 
tained exertion,  in  the  equatorial  regions  in  which  he  had  established 
himself. — So,  again,  Mr.  Waterton,  the  well-known  traveller,  speaks 
of  himself  as  confident  that  the  preservation  of  his  vigour  during 

1  The  writer  has  been  informed  by  an  intimate  friend  of  this  gentleman, 
that  his  lamented  death,  which  took  place  from  a  coup  de  soleil  (sun-stroke), 
whilst  holding  the  appointment  of  Superintendent  of  the  Botanic  Garden  at 
Ceylon,  was  entirely  due  to  the  injudicious  and  almost  fool-hardy  exposure 
to  which  his  confidence  in  his  vigour  led  him  to  subject  himself. 

9  Travels  in  Brazil,  p.  402. 


116         SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

many  years  of  toil  and  exposure  in  tropical  climates,  is  mainly  duo 
to  bis  total  abstinence  from  fermented  liquors. — And  the  writer  has 
been  assured  by  Dr.  Daniell,  who  was  for  a  long  time  stationed  as 
medical  officer  in  the  equatorial  portions  of  Western  Africa,  that  he 
found  the  use  of  the  ordinary  alcoholic  liquors  decidedly  inimical  to 
the  power  of  exertion  ;  the  strongest  beverage  which  could  be  habi- 
tually made  use  of  without  injury,  being  the  'palm-wine'  of  those 
countries,  which  is  very  little,  if  at  all,  more  alcoholic  than  our  gin- 
ger-beer. The  following  testimony,  given  by  Doctor  Mosely  in  his 
work  on  Tropical  Diseases,  may  be  added  to  the  foregoing  :  —  "I 
have  ever  found,"  he  says, tl  from  my  own  knowledge  and  custom, 
as  well  as  from  the  custom  and  observation  of  others,  that  those  who 
drink  nothing  but  water,  or  make  it  their  principal  drink,  are  but 
little  affected  by  the  climate,  and  can  undergo  the  greatest  fatigue 
without  inconvenience."  Many  other  individual  testimonies  might 
be  cited  to  the  same  effect;  but  as  these  are  open  to  the  objection 
of  being  influenced  by  peculiarities  of  individual  constitution,  it  will 
be  preferable  to  have  recourse  to  cases  in  which  large  bodies  of  men 
are  included. 

140.  The  following  statement,  which  the  writer  has  received 
from  an  Officer  in  the  regiment  to  which  it  refers,  proves  that  our 
English  soldiers  in  India  not  only  do  not  suffer  from,  but  are  abso- 
lutely benefited  by,  abstinence  from  Alcoholic  liquors  during  a  con- 
tinuance of  unusually  severe  exertion.  "  In  the  early  part  of  the 
year  1847,  the  84th  Regiment  marched  by  wings  from  Madras  to 
Secunderabad,  a  distance  of  between  four  and  five  hundred  miles. 
They  were  forty-seven  days  on  the  road,  and  during  this  period  the 
men  were  practically  speaking  teetotalers.  Previously  to  leaving 
Madras,  subscriptions  were  made  among  the  men,  and  a  coffee 
establishment  was  organized.  Every  morning,  when  the  tents  were 
struck,  a  pint  of  hot  coffee  and  a  biscuit  were  ready  for  each  man, 
instead  of  the  daily  morning  dram  which  soldiers  on  the  march  in 
India  almost  invariably  take.  Half  way  on  the  day's  march,  the 
regiment  halted,  and  another  pint  of  coffee  was  ready  for  any  man 
who  wished  it.  The  regimental  canteen  was  opened  only  at  ten  and 
twelve  o'clock  for  a  short  time,  but  the  men  did  not  frequent  it; 
and  the  daily  consumption  of  arrack  for  our  wing  was  only  two 
gallons  and  a  few  drams  per  diem,  instead  of  twenty-seven  gallons, 
which  was  the  daily  Government  allowance.  The  commanding 
officer  employed  the  most  judicious  precautions  to  prevent  the  men 
from  obtaining  arrack  in  the  villages  on  the  route ;  and  his  exer- 
tions were  effectively  seconded  by  the  zealous  co-operation  of  the 
other  officers,  and  by  the  admirable  conduct  ot  the  majority  of  the 
men,  who  were  fully  persuaded  of  the  obnoxious  influence  of  ardent 
spirits  during  exercise  in  the  sun.  The  results  of  this  water-system 
were  shortly  these : — Although  the  road  is  proverbial  for  cholera 


IN    SUSTAINING    THE    VITAL    POWERS.          117 

and  dysentery,  and  passes  through  several  unhealthy  and  marshy 
districts,  the  men  were  free  from  sickness  to  an  extent  absolutely 
unprecedented  in  our  marches  in  India ;  they  had  no  cholera  and 
no  fever;  and  only  two  men  were  lost  by  dysentery,  both  of  whom 
were  old  chronic  cases  taken  out  of  hospital  at  Madras.  With 
these  exceptions,  there  was  scarcely  a  serious  case  of  sickness  during 
the  whole  march.  The  officers  were  surprised  that  the  men  marched 
infinitely  better,  with  less  fatigue  and  with  fewer  stragglers,  than 
they  had  ever  before  known ;  and  it  was  noticed  by  every  one  that 
the  men  were  unusually  cheerful  and  contented.  During  the  wholo 
march,  the  regiment  had  not  a  single  prisoner  for  drunkenness." 
A  considerable  proportion  of  the  men  (the  writer  has  learned  from 
his  informant)  abstained  entirely  from  arrack;  and  the  consumption 
of  those  who  occasionally  took  it,  was  far  below  their  usual  allow- 
ance. Those  who  entirely  abstained  were  certainly  in  no  respect 
inferior,  either  in  power  of  sustaining  exertion,  or  in  freedom  from 
sickness,  to  those  who  occasionally  took  small  quantities  of  spirits; 
on  the  contrary,  they  rather  seemed  to  have  the  advantage.  That 
this  remarkable  result  was  not  due  to  any  peculiar  healthfulness  of 
the  season,  or  other  modifying  circumstance,  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  63rd  Regiment,  which  performed  the  same  march,  at  the 
very  same  time,  though  in  the  opposite  direction,  lost  several  men 
out  of  a  strength  of  400;  and  that  it  had  so  many  sick,  that  when 
it  met  the  84th  on  its  march,  it  was  obliged  to  borrow  the  spare 
£fdhoolies"  (or  palanquins  for  the  sick)  belonging  to  the  latter.1 

141.  The  foregoing  account  fully  accords  with  that  given  by  Sir 
James  (then  Mr.)  McGr rigor,  of  the  march  in  Egypt  of  a  division 
of  the  British  army  sent  from  Hindustan  to  aid  the  main  army  in 
opposing  the  French  under  Buonaparte.  After  the  Great  Desert 
had  been  crossed,  in  July,  1801,  no  spirits  were  issued  to  the  troops 
in  Upper  Egypt,  owing  to  a  difficulty  in  procuring  carriage  for 
them.  At  this  time  there  was  much  fatigue-duty  to  be  performed ; 
which,  for  want  of  followers,  was  done  by  the  soldiers  themselves; 
the  other  duties  were  severe  upon  them ;  they  were  frequently  ex- 
ercised, and  were  much  in  the  sun ;  the  heat  was  excessive,  the 
thermometer  standing  at  113°  or  114°  Fahr.  in  the  soldiers'  tents 
in  the  middle  of  the  day ;  but  at  no  time  was  the  Indian  army 
more  healthy.2 

1  The  marked  contrast  between  the  rate  of  mortality  in  the  63rd  and 
84tli  Regiments,  during  their  respective  residences  at  Secunderabad  during 
two  consecutive  years,  has  been  already  noticed  (gg  81,  82) ;  but  it  may  be 
as  well  here  to  remind  the  reader,  that  the  former  lost  73  men  in  nine 
months,  which  was  at  the  rate  of  78-8  per  1000  of  average  strength  for 
the  entire  year ;  whilst  the  latter  lost  but  39  men  in  the  whole  twelve 
months,  being  at  the  rate  of  34-2  of  average  strength. 

*  Medical  Sketches  of  the  Expedition  from  India  to  Egypt,  p.  86. 


118          SUPPOSED  USES  OP  ALCOHOL 

142.  The  intimate  acquaintance  of  Sir  Charles  Napier  with  the 
habits  and  wants  of  the  Indian  soldier  can  be  doubted  by  no  one ; 
and  the  following  is  his  testimony  in  favour  of  the  abstinence  sys- 
tem, (delivered  in  his  own  characteristic  manner)  as  contained  in 
his  address  to  the  96th  Regiment,  when  he  reviewed  it  at  Calcutta 
on  the  llth  of  May,  1849.  —  "Let  me  give  you  a  bit  of  advice  — 
that  is,  don't  drink.     I  know  young  men  do  not  think  much  about 
advice  from  old  men.     They  put  their  tongue  in  their  cheek,  and 
think  that  they  know  a  good  deal  better  than  the  old  cove  that  is 
giving  them  advice.     But  let  me  tell  you  that  you  are  come  to  a 
country  where,  if  you  drink,  you're  dead  men.     If  you  be  sober 
and  steady,  you'll  get  on  well;  but  if  you  drink,  you're  done  for. 
You  will  be  either  invalided  or  die.     I  knew  two  regiments  in  this 
country,  one  drank,  the  other  didn't  drink.     The  one  that  didn't 
drink  is  one  of  the  finest  regiments,  and  has  got  on  as  well  as  any 
regiment  in  existence.     The  one  that  did  drink  has  been  all  but 
destroyed.     For  any  regiment  for  which  I  have  a  respect  (and  there 
is  not  one  of  the  British  regiments  that  I  don't  respect)  I  should 
always   try  and  persuade   them  to  keep  from  drinking.     I  know 
there  are  some  men  who  will  drink  in  spite  of  the  devil  and  their 
officers;  but  such  men  will  soon  be  in  hospital,  and  very  few  that 
go  in,  in  this  country,  ever  come  out  again/' 

143.  Whatever  temporary  advantage,  then,  is  derived   or  sup- 
posed to  be  derived  from   the   stimulating    powers   of  Alcoholic 
liquors,  when  they  are  used  with  a  view  of  sustaining  the  power 
of  exertion  in  tropical  climates,   is  dearly  purchased  by  the  in- 
creased liability  to  disease,  which  not  only  theoretically,  but  accord- 
ing to  all  competent  evidence,  actually  results  from  their  habitual 
use.     And  thus  Theory  and  Practice  are  again  completely  agreed, 
in  affording  a  decisive  contradiction  to  the  usually  received   idea, 
that  Alcoholic  liquors  assist  the  body  in  the  endurance  of  Heat. 

V.  —  RESISTANCE    TO    MORBIFIC    AGENCIES.1 

144.  It  is  a  common  idea,  and  one  apparently  supported  by 
adequate  evidence,  that  such  a  use  of  fermented  liquors  as  aids  in 
keeping  the  body  in  "high  condition/'  renders  it  less  susceptible 
of  the  influence  of  pestilential  miasmata,2  of  cold  and  damp,  or  of 
other  morbific  agencies;  and  this  belief  is  entertained  by  many, 
who  deprecate  the  habitual  use   of  fermented  liquors   under  other 
circumstances.     Thus,   says  Dr.  Macnish,   "lam  persuaded  that 
while,  in  the  tropics,  stimulating  liquors  are  highly  prejudicial,  and 
often   occasion,   while  they  never  prevent  disease ;    they   are   fre- 

1  Morbific  agencies  —  disease-producing  agencies. 

a  Miasmata  —  the  morbific,   or  disease-producing  emanations  from    do- 
mestic and  personal  impurities,  decaying  oi-ganic  substances,  marshes,  &o. 


IN     SUSTAINING    THE    VITAL     POWERS.  119 

quently  of  great  service  in  accomplishing  the  latter  object  in  damp 
foggy  countries,  especially  when  fatigue,  poor  diet,  agues,  dysen- 
teries, and  other  diseases  of  debility  are  to  be  contended  against." 
—  "In  countries  subject  to  intermittent^,  it  is  very  well  known 
that  those  who  indulge  moderately  in  spirits  are  much  less  subject 
to  these  diseases  than  the  strictly  abstinent."  l  These  assertions 
he  endeavours  to  justify  by  the  two  following  statements.  "  At 
Walcheren  it  was  remarked  that  those  officers  and  soldiers  who 
took  schnaps,  alias  brandy  drams,  in  the  morning,  and  smoked, 
escaped  the  fever  which  was  so  destructive  to  the  British  troops  ; 
and  the  natives  generally  insisted  upon  doing  so  before  going  out 
in  the  morning."  2  Again,  "  A  British  regiment  quartered  on  the 
Niagara  frontier  of  Upper  Canada,  in  the  year  1813,  was  pre- 
vented by  some  accident  from  receiving  the  usual  supply  of  spirits  ; 
and  in  a  very  short  time,  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  men  were  on 
the  sick  list  from  ague  and  dysentery ;  while  the  very  next  year, 
on  the  same  ground,  and  in  almost  every  respect  under  the  same 
circumstances,  except  that  the  men  had  their  usual  allowance  of 
spirits,  the  sickness  was  extremely  trifling.  Every  person  ac- 
quainted with  the  circumstances,  believed  that  the  diminution  of 
the  sick  during  the  latter  period,  was  attributable  to  the  men 
having  received  the  quantity  of  spirits  to  which  they  had  been 
habituated."  3 

145.  Now  it  is  obvious  that  neither  of  these  facts  proves  that 
exposure  to  the  morbific  agencies  in  question  renders  an  allowance 
of  spirits  necessary,  or  even  beneficial,  for  those  who  have  not  been 
accustomed  to  make  use  of  it  under  ordinary  circumstances.  On 
the  contrary,  the  second  instance  is  a  valuable  testimony  to  the 
disadvantage  of  habitual  dependence  upon  alcoholic  stimulants; 
inasmuch  as  it  is  evident  that,  when  they  were  withheld  from  the 
troops,  the  constitution  of  the  men  was  rendered  peculiarly  sus- 
ceptible to  the  causes  of  disease  indigenous  4  to  their  locality.  All 
that  it  proves  is,  that  an  unduly  depressed  state  of  the  system  is 
favourable  to  attacks  of  ague  and  dysentery  (of  which  every  medi- 
cal practitioner  is  aware),  and  that  in  persons  who  have  habituated 
themselves  to  the  use  of  spirits,  such  depression  is  liable  to  super- 
vene when  the  allowance  is  withheld,  and  may  be  for  a  time  kept 
off  by  its  restoration.  —  And  even  the  first  example  cannot  be  said 
to  prove  more  than  this;  for  it  simply  gives  us  the  experience  of 
individuals  who  took  an  early  dose  of  spirits,  as  compared  with 
that  of  the  individuals  who  abstained  from  this  habit;  without 

1  Anatomy  of  Drunkenness,  pp.  277,  279. 
a  Glasgow  Medical  Journal,  No.  xv. 

3  Op.  cit. 

4  Indigenous  —  belonging  to  the  place. 


120          SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

telling  us  that  the  latter  adopted  any  of  those  substitutes,  which 
prudential  experience  would  dictate. 

146.  The  writer  is  strongly  impressed  with  the  belief,  that  the 
result,  in  this  and  in  many  similar  cases,  is  to  be  attributed  to  the 
neglect  of  such  precautions.     It  is  well  known   that  in  localities 
where  zymotic  '  poisons  are  indigenous,  no  condition  of  the  healthy 
system  is  so  obnoxious  to  their  influence,  as  that  which  is  natural 
to  it  on  first  rising  in  the  morning,  when  the  stomach  is  empty, 
the  pulse  comparatively  feeble,  and  the  heat-producing  power  nearly 
at  its  minimum.     The  nutritive   actions  which  have  been  taking 
place  during  repose,  have  prepared  the  nervous  and  muscular  appa- 
ratus for  renewed  activity ;  but  this  has  been  accomplished  at  the 
expense  of  the  blood,  from  which  there  has  been  a  continual  drain, 
both  for  the  regeneration   of  the  tissues,  and  for  the   maintenance 
of  the  animal  heat.     It  is  within  the  experience  of  most  persons, 
that  nervous  and  muscular  exertion  are  less  efficiently  sustained,2 
and   external  cold  less  fully  resisted,  at  this  period,  than  at  any 
other  ;  and  the  recommendation  of  experience  to  "  take  something 
to  keep  the  cold  out  of  the  stomach"  is  here  fully  justified  upon 
physiological  principles.     But  it  does  not  hence  follow,  that  alco- 
holic stimulants  constitute  the  best  means  of  protecting  the  system 
against  the  influence  of  morbific  agencies;  on  the  contrary,  we 
shall  find  strong  reason  to  believe  that  other  means,  properly  em- 
ployed, would  be  as  efficacious  at  the  time,  and  would  have  a  more 
permanently  beneficial  effect. 

147.  A  man  previously  in  the  enjoyment  of  vigorous  health, 
and  not  accustomed  to  depend  upon  alcoholic  stimulants,  will  de- 
rive all  the  protection  he  can  require,  from  taking  his  first  solid 
meal  before  he  exposes  himself  to  the  cold,  damp,  or  pestilential 
miasmata,  whose  influence  is  to  be  resisted ;  and  the  moderate  use 
of  hot  tea,  coffee,  or  cocoa,  will  help  to  diffuse  a  genial  warmth 
through  his  body,  which  is  more  enduring  than  that  which  results 
from  the  ingestion  of  spirituous  liquors.     In  this  way  the  stomach 
will  be  wholesomely  employed,  new  material  will  be  supplied  to 
the  blood,  the  circulation  will  be  quickened  without  being  excited, 
the  firmness  of  the  pulse  will  be  increased,  and  the  heat-producing 
power  will  be  augmented  •  and  all  this,  in  a  manner  strictly  ac- 
cordant with  the  normal  economy  of  the  bodily  system. — On  the 
other  hand,  although  the  use  of  spirits,  by  producing  a  temporary 
excitement  of  the  circulation,  will  probably  render  the  system  less 

1  Zymotic  —  fermentive.     A  term  applied   to  the  causes  productive   of 
endemic,  epidemic,  and  contagious  diseases. 

2  The  writer  can  speak  feelingly  on  this  subject ;  being  himself  unable 
to  walk  a  couple   of  miles  upon   the   empty  stomach   of  early   morning, 
without  extreme  languor  almost  amounting  to  syncope ;  although  four  or 
five  times  that  amount  would  usually  be  performed  by  him  after  breakfast 
with  scarcely  an  approach  to  fatigue. 


i  N     SUSTAINING    THE     VITAL    POWERS.  121 

obnoxious  to  morbific  agencies,  than  if  it  be  exposed  to  thorn  before 
its  dormant  energies  have  been  in  any  way  aroused,  yet  we  can 
scarcely  anticipate  that  they  can  be  as  favourable  to  the  sustenance 
of  its  energy  (a  previously  healthy  and  vigorous  condition  being 
supposed),  as  persistence  in  the  regular  habits  to  which  it  has  been 
accustomed.  For  it  has  been  already  shown,  that  the  continued 
endurance  of  cold  is  not  favoured  by  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors, 
but  on  the  contrary  is  impaired  by  it ;  and  where  cold,  therefore, 
acts  concurrently  with  zymotic  poisons,  and  favours  their  operation 
by  the  depression  of  .the  vital  powers  which  it  induces,  we  should 
feel  certain  that  those  means  would  be  most  conducive  to  the  re- 
sisting power  of  the  system,  which  are  most  efficient  in  maintaining 
its  standard  warmth. 

148.  So  far  as  we  are  acquainted  with  the  bearings  of  experience 
on  this  question,  they  are  decidedly  favourable  to  the  view  here 
advocated,  namely, — that  where  a  healthy  state  of  the  system  has 
been  previously  maintained  without  the  assistance  of  alcoholic 
liquors,  the  operation  of  morbific  agents  will  be  more  efficiently 
warded  off  by  a  continuance  of  the  abstinent  plan,  than  by  re- 
course to  stimulants;  provided  that  the  same  precaution  be  exer- 
cised by  the  disciple  of  abstinence,  as  by  the  spirit-drinker,  in  not 
exposing  himself  to  the  morning  air  without  a  fortification  of  "  the 
inner  man."  For  we  do  not  see  that  the  circumstances  of  tropical 
or  those  of  cold  or  temperate  climates  differ,  as  regards  the  sus- 
ceptibility of  the  system  to  zymotic  poisons,  in  any  other  particular 
than  their  temperature ;  but  this  will  act  in  more  than  one  way ; 
for  whilst,  on  the  one  hand,  the  depressing  influence  of  cold  upon 
the  body  will  tend  to  increase  its  susceptibility,  the  agency  of  heat, 
on  the  other,  will  augment  the  potency  of  the  poison.  Now,  that 
abstinence  from  spirits  diminishes  instead  of  increasing  the  liability 
of  the  body  to  the  influence  of  pestilential  miasms  in  warm  cli- 
mates, provided  that  other  precautions  be  duly  taken,  we  have  not 
merely  the  individual  experience  of  Mr.  Gardner,  Mr.  Waterton, 
and  others  (§§  188,  139),  in  addition  to  the  testimony  of  many 
medical  observers,  but  the  important  evidence  derived  from  the 
march,  of  the  84th  Regiment  along  a  road  "  proverbial  for  cholera 
and  dysentery,"  without  a  single  fresh  attack  of  these  complaints 
(§  140).  Here  the  "  pint  of  hot  coffee  and  biscuit"  were  cer- 
tainly to  the  full  as  efficacious  as  "  the  daily  morning  dram,  which 
soldiers  on  the  march  in  India  almost  invariably  take ;"  arid  there 
is  no  adequate  reason  why  the  coffee  should  not  have  an  equal 
value  in  colder  countries,  when  employed  with  the  larger  allowance 
of  heat-producing  food  which  will  be  there  required. 

140.  When  the  remote  effects  of  the  two  systems  are  contrasted, 
there  can  be  little  hesitation  in.  assigning  the  preference  to  the 
abstinent  plan.  For  the  object  being  to  sustain  the  utmost 


122         SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

bility  of  health,  and  especially  to  avoid  that  depressed  condition 
which  sooner  or  later  supervenes  upon  states  of  undue  excitement, 
it  is  obvious  that  when  all  the  nutritive  functions  are  regularly  and 
vigorously  discharged,  it  is  unwise  to  interfere  with  their  per- 
formance by  the  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors,  which,  if  sufficient  to  pro- 
duce either  general  stimulation,  or  excitement  of  any  one  function, 
must  involve  as  its  consequence  a  corresponding  diminution  of  the 
normal  activity  at  some  subsequent  period.  It  is  quite  tru<-  that 
this  may  not  manifest  itself  at  once ;  so  that  for  weeks,  months,  and 
years,  the  vigour  of  the  system  may  seem  to  be  efficiently  main- 
tained, and  morbific  agencies  to  be  perfectly  kept  at  bay,  by  the 
habitual  use  of  a  small  quantity  of  alcoholic  stimulus;  to  which  the 
beneficial  result  will  then  be  probably  attributed.  But  the  trial  is 
not  complete  in  weeks,  months,  or  years ;  it  must  last  for  the  whole 
life ;  and  if  it  be  true,  as  we  shall  presently  endeavour  to  show,  that 
the  continued  employment,  however  moderate,  of  small  quantities 
of  alcoholic  liquors,  favours,  if  it  does  not  necessarily  induce,  an 
early  exhaustion  of  the  vital  powers,  it  cannot  be  questioned  that 
the  system  will  then  be  left  in  a  state  of  peculiar  susceptibility  to 
the  influence  of  zymotic  poisons  and  other  morbific  agencies.  It  is 
well  known  that  persons  of  regular  habits  and  good  ordinary  health, 
who  have  long  resided  in  countries  where  intermittent  fevers  prevail, 
are  frequently  attacked  by  them  when  their  vital  powers  begin  to 
decline  with  advancing  years ;  and  if  that  decline  be  hastened  by  the 
previous  over-excitement  of  alcoholic  liquors,  the  influence  of  these 
morbific  causes  will  be  earlier  and  more  powerfully  exerted. 

150.  These  theoretical  deductions  are  not  merely  sanctioned  by 
such  results  of  experience  as  can  be  brought  to  bear  directly  upon 
them  ;  for  they  are  in  complete  harmony  with  the  facts  universally 
admitted,  in  regard  to  the  peculiar  susceptibility  of  habitually  intem- 
perate persons,  and  especially  of  those  whose  constitutions  have  been 
broken  down  by  the  combined  influence  of  intemperance  and  ad- 
vancing years,  to  the  attacks  of  fever,  cholera,  and  other  pestilential 
disorders  (§  65).     For,  we  again  repeat,  if  the  cause,  when  acting 
with  its  greatest  potency,  is  attended  with  a  result  which  no  one  can 
hesitate  in  accepting,  it  is  but  reasonable  to  attribute  to  the  same 
cause,  acting  with  diminished  intensity,  but  over  a  longer  period  of 
time,  a  result  of  a  similar  nature;  even  though  this  may  be  so  long 
postponed,  that  its  dependence  on  that  cause  is  in  danger  of  being 
overlooked. 

151.  We  have  abundant  evidence,  then,  not  merely  in  the  expe- 
rience of  individuals,  but  in  that  of  large  bodies  of  men,  that  the 
most   vigorous    health    may    be   maintained,   under    circumstances 
usually  regarded  as  most  trying  to  the  power  of  bodily  and  mental 
endurance,  without  the  assistance  of  Alcoholic  stimulants.     Such 
evidence  is  afforded  by  the  numerous  ships  that  are  travelling  everv 


IN     SUSTAINING     THE     VITAL    POWERS.          123 

part  of  the  wide  ocean,  whose  crews,  pledged  to  the  total  abstinence 
principle,  maintain  a  degree  of  health  and  vigour  which  cannot  be 
surpassed;  by  the  many  workshops  of  every  kind,  in  which  the 
severest  labour  is  endured,  with  a  constancy  at  least  equal  to  that 
of  the  drinkers  of  alcoholic  beverages ;  by  troops  executing  toilsome 
marches  in  the  sultry  heat  of  a  torrid  zone,  and  through  the  pesti- 
lential atmosphere  of  tropical  marshes,  who  find  the  "  cup  of  cold 
water"  more  refreshing  and  sustaining  than  the  spirituous  drinks 
which  hurry  so  many  of  their  comrades  to  an  early  grave;  and  by 
numbers  of  men  and  women,  in  every  rank  of  life,  in  every  variety 
of  condition,  and  subjected  to  every  kind  of  mental  and  bodily 
exertion,  who  have  given  the  principle  of  Total  Abstinence  a  fair 
trial,  and  have  borne  their  willing  testimony  to  its  beneficial  results. 
And  where  such  is  the  case,  there  can  scarcely  be  a  question  that 
this  system  is  preferable  to  the  habitual  use,  however  moderate,  of 
fermented  liquors.  For,  if  the  appetite  prompt  to  the  use  of  an 
adequate  amount  of  nourishment  to  repair  the  waste  of  the  sytem  ; 
if  the  stomach  perform  its  action  with  due  energy,  and  supply  to 
the  absorbent  vessels  the  material  for  fresh  blood  in  a  state  of  due 
preparation ;  if  the  circulation  be  carried  on  with  that  equable  regu- 
larity, which  is  most  favourable  to  the  actions  to  which  it  is  subser- 
vient; if  the  various  tissues  draw  from  the  current  of  nutritious 
fluid  the  materials  which  they  severally  require,  and  apply  these 
materials  to  their  own  maintenance  and  regeneration ;  if  the  lungs 
freely  exhale  the  carbonic  acid  which  is  evolved  by  their  exercise, 
and  introduce  the  oxygen  which  is  needed  for  a  renewal  of  the 
effort;  and  if  the  liver,  kidneys,  and  skin,  by  the  constant  discharge 
of  their  respective  offices,  eliminate  from  the  blood  the  other  pro- 
ducts of  the  waste  of  the  system,  and  thus  keep  it  in  the  state  of 
purity  most  favourable  to  the  discharge  of  its  multitudinous  func- 
tions ; — in  a  word,  if  all  the  actions  concerned  in  the  maintenance  of 
the  fabric  be  already  discharged  with  that  vigour  and  uniformity 
which  constitute  health,  why  should  we  attempt  to  alter  them  by 
means  of  agents,  which,  if  they  produce  any  effect  whatever  on  the 
system,  can  only  operate  by  producing  a  departure  from  that  perfect 
balance  of  the  several  parts  of  the  nutritive  functions  which  it  is  so 
desirable  to  maintain,  and  so  difficult  to  restore  when  perverted? 
Let  us  examine  these  questions  in  more  detail. 

VI. CONSEQUENCES    OF   THE    HABITUAL    "MODERATE"    USE   OP 

ALCOHOLIC    LIQUORS. 

152.  Effect  upon  the  General  System  and  Excretory  Organs. — 
[f  the  natural  appetite  be  already  good  enough  to  give  a  relish  to 
the  food  which  the  system  requires,  can  the  artificial  production  of 
an  increased  appetite  be  necessary  or  desirable?  And  if  the  sto 


124         SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

mach  be  already  capable  of  digesting  and  preparing  as  much  nutri- 
ment as  is  required  to  keep  up  the  solids  of  the  blood  to  their  pro- 
per amount,  can  any  but  prejudicial  consequences  result  from  forcing 
it  to  dispose  of  more  ?  Two  classes  of  evils  may  be  expected  to 
proceed  from  such  a  system ;  in  the  first  place,  the  habitual  intro- 
duction of  more  alimentary  material  into  the  circulating  current  than 
the  nutritive  functions  can  appropriate,  must  predispose  to  disorder 
of  the  system  in  general ;  and  secondly,  by  constant  reliance  upon 
an  artificial  stimulus,  the  natural  powers  of  the  stomach  itself  must 
be  in  danger  of  becoming  gradually  impaired. 

153.  The  effect  upon  the  system  at  large,  of  an  habitual  intro- 
duction of  more  alimentary  material   than  the  nutritive  functions 
can  appropriate,  seems  to  vary  with  the  temperament.     In  some  in- 
dividuals, they  are  converted  into  blood,  so  that  the  normal  amount 
of  that  liquid  undergoes  an  augmentation  ;  thereby  inducing  a  state 
of  plethora,1  which  is  favourable  to  local  congestions  and  inflamma- 
tory diseases  of  various  organs,  and  which  especially  predisposes  to 
hemorrhage  —  this  being  an  effort  of  nature  to  relieve  the  undue 
turgescence.     But  in  other  constitutions,  the  superfluous  aliment 
would  seem  to  be  never  so  far  vitalized  and  assimilated,  but  is  from 
the  first  destined  to  excretion ;  the  lungs,  the  liver,  the  kidney,  and 
the  skin,  are  thus  called  upon  to  remove,  not  merely  the  products 
of  the  normal  waste  or  disintegration  of  the  system,  but  also  the 
superfluous  non-assimilated  matter;  and  hence  they  are  brought  into 
a  state  of  undue  functional  activity,  which  cannot  but  render  them 
peculiarly  susceptible  of  derangement.     The  excretory  action  of  the 
lungs,  however,  is  chiefly  regulated  (as  already  shown,  §  127),  by 
the  temperature  ;  so  that,  when  it  is  diminished  by  external  warmth, 
more  remains  to  be  accomplished  by  the  other  depurating 2  organs  • 
and  hence  any  excess  in  diet  is  more  likely  to  have  a  prejudicial 
effect  upon  the  latter  in  warm  climates,  and  during  the  summer, 
than  in  a  colder  atmosphere. 

154.  This  is  precisely  what  experience  teaches.     From  habitual 
excess  in  diet,  in  temperate  climates,  in  persons  not  of  the  san- 
guineous temperament,  disorders  both  of  the  Liver  and  Kidney  are 
very  apt  to  arise }  those  being  most  liable  to  the  former,  who  have 
not  the  power  of  generating  fatty  tissue  at  the  expense  of  the  sur- 
plus of  non-azotized  food ;  and  those  being  most  liable  to  the  latter, 
in  whom  the  too  free  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  occasions  an  undue 
determination  of  blood  to  the  Kidneys.     On  the  other  hand,  habitual 
excess  of  food  in  warm  climates  usually  manifests  itself  first  in  dis- 
orders of  the  Liver;  since  the  diminished  excretion  of  carbon  by  the 
iungs  causes  the  blood  to  proceed  to  the  liver  more  highly  charged 

1  Plethora  —  overfulness  of  blood 
a  Depurating  —  purifying. 


IN     SUSTAINING    THE    VITAL    POWERS.         125 

with  that  element,  whilst  at  the  same  time  the  consumption  of  that 
part  of  the  biliary  secretion  which  should  be  normally  oxygenated 
and  carried  off  through  the  lungs,  is  interfered  with.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Skin,  whose  functions  are  greatly  increased  in  activity, 
conies  to  the  assistance  of  the  Kidneys  in  disposing  of  the  super- 
fluity of  azotized1  aliment;  a  considerable  amount  of  urea2  being 
daily  excreted  through  the  former  channel.3  This  result  of  what  is 
accounted  the  u  moderate"  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  in  warm  climates, 
for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  appetite  and  stimulating  the  diges- 
tive powers  of  the  stomach,  is  much  dwelt  upon  by  writers  on  tro- 
pical diseases;  who  represent  it  as,  in  the  long  run,  not  less  hurtful 
than  that  excess  which  produces  effects  more  immediately  and  ob- 
viously pernicious.  In  this  point  of  view  it  ranks  with  high-sea- 
soned dishes,  and  those  other  seducing  provocatives  to  the  diminished 
appetite  and  lessened  digestive  powers  of  the  residents  in  such  cli- 
mates, which,  by  occasioning  the  habitual  ingestion  of  more  food 
than  the  system  requires,  are  among  the  most  fertile  source's  of  tro- 
pical disease. 

155.  Now,  as  already  remarked,  almost  every  cause  of  disease 
acts  on  the  human  system  with  greater  potency  in  tropical  than  in 
temperate  regions ;  and  we  have  opportunities,  therefore,  in  the 
study  of  tropical  diseases,  of  perceiving  the  agency  of  causes,  whoso 
tardiness  of  operation  under  other  circumstances  interferes  with  our 
recognition  of  their  real  results.  It  cannot,  then,  be  imagined  that 
even  a  small  habitual  excess  in  diet,  induced  by  the  stimulating 
action  of  fermented  liquors,  can  be  without  its  remote  consequences 
upon  the  general  system ;  even  though  it  may  be  for  a  time  suffi- 
ciently compensated  by  increased  activity  of  the  excreting  organs.* 
And  the  disorders  of  the  Liver  and  Kidneys,  which  are  so  frequent 
among  those  who  have  been  accustomed  to  this  mode  of  living  for 
many  years,  without  (as  they  believe)  any  injurious  consequences, 
are, as  surely  to  be  set  down  to  it,  as  are  those  congestive  and  in- 
flammatory diseases  of  the  abdominal  viscera,  which  so  much  more 
speedily  follow  upon  habitual  excess  in  warm  climates.  For  the 
excreting  organs  cannot  be  always  kept  in  a  condition  of  excessive 
activity;  like  other  parts  of  the  system,  they  suffer  sooner  or  later 
from  too  great  an  exaltation  of  their  function ;  and  if  this  should 
not  pass,  as  it  often  does,  into  an  inflammatory  condition,  it  is  almost 
certain  to  be  remotely  followed  by  a  state  of  depressed  activity,  in 
which  the  nutrition  of  the  organ  becomes  impaired,  so  that  it  is  left, 

1  Azotized  aliment  —  aliment  containing  nitrogen. 

2  Urea  —  a  substance  forming  an  essential  part  of  the  urine. 

3  See  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Landerer  of  Athens,  in  Brit,  and  For.  Med. 
Chir.  Review,  vol.  i.  p.  541. 

4  Excreting  organs  —  organs  that  separate  the  refuse,  worn-out,  and  dele- 
terious matters  from  the  blood. 

11* 


126         SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

during  the  remainder  of  life,  in  a  state  by  no  means  equal  to  the 
performance  of  its  regular  duties. 

156.  In  asserting  that  to  the  ordinary  use  of  fermented  liquors  in 
"  moderate"  quantity,  during  early  and  middle  life,  and  to  the  habi- 
tual excess  in  diet  (however  slight)  to  which  they  prompt,  we  are  to 
attribute  many  of  the  chronic  disorders  of  the  excreting  organs  which 
are  amongst  the  most  common  ailments  of  advancing  years,  we  may 
seem  to  go  beyond  the  positive  teachings  of  experience.     The  con- 
sequences are  so  remote,  that  we  may  not  appear  to  be  justified  in 
attributing  them  to  the  causes  we  have  assigned.     But  let  it  be 
remembered  that  we  have  multitudes  of  other  cases,  in  which  the 
long-continued  agency  of  morbific  causes  of  comparatively  low  inten- 
sity has  been  proved  to  'be  in  the  end  not  less  potent,  than  the  ad- 
ministration of  a   poison   in    a  dose   large  enough  to  produce  its 
obviously  and   immediately-injurious   effects.      Thus,  a  man   who 
would  be  rapidly  suffocated  by  immersion  in  an  atmosphere  of  car- 
bonic acicl,  may  live  for  weeks,  months,  or  years,  in  an  atmosphere 
slightly  contaminated  by  it,  without  experiencing  any  evil  effects 
which  he  can  distinctly  connect  with  its  influence  ;  and  yet  who  will 
now  deny  that  the  constant  action  of  this  minute  dose  of  aerial  poi- 
son is  insidiously  undermining  his  vital  powers,  and  preparing  him 
to  become  the  easy  prey  of  the  destroying  pestilence  ?     So  again, 
•we  see  that  a  brief  exposure  to  the  pestilential  atmosphere  of  the 
swamps  of  the  Guinea  coast,  is  often  sufficient  to  induce  an  attack 
of  the  most  rapidly  fatal  forms  of  tropical  fever ;  but  the  dweller 
among  the  marshy  lands  of  temperate  climates,  inhaling  the  paludal 
poison '  in  its  less  concentrated  form,  becomes  after  a  time  afflicted 
with  intermittent  fever;  and    no  one    has  any   hesitation   in   here 
recognizing  the  connexion  of  cause  and  effect.     On  the  other  hand, 
the  resident  in  a  town,  where  the  insufficiency  of  the  drainage  causes 
the  surface-moisture  to  be  imperfectly  carried  off,  and  to  be   not 
merely  charged  with  the  malaria  of  vegetable  decomposition,  but 
with  the  miasmatic  emanations  of  animal  putrescence,  may  long  be 
free  from  serious  disorder,  if  the  cause  do  not  operate  in  sufficient 
intensity  ;  yet  he  becomes  liable  in  a  greatly-increased  degree  to  the 
operation  of  almost  every   morbific  agent,  and    especially  of   the 
various  forms  of  fever-poison ;  and  no  one  who  has  paid  even  a 
slight  degree  of  attention  to  the  results  of  the  sanitary  enquiries 
which  have  now  been  carried  on  for  many  years  past,  hesitates  in 
admitting  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect  between  insufficiency  of 
drainage  and  the  higher  rate  of  mortality  in  undrained  localities, 
although  not  only  days  and  weeks,  but  months  and  years,  may  be 
required  for  the  operation  of  the  cause  upon  the  animal  system. 

157.  Should  we  not  then  be  running  counter  to  all  analogy,  if 


Paludal  poisons —  exhalations  from  marshes 


IN     SUSTAINING    THE    VITAL    POWER'S.          127 

we  do  not  hold  ourselves  ready  to  admit,  that  such  an  habitual  excess 
in  diet  as  is  favoured  by  the  moderate  use  of  Alcoholic  stimulants, 
and  a  consequent  habitual  over-exertion  of  the  excretory  organs, 
must  be  likely  to  have  remotely  injurious  results;  and  are  we  not 
justified  in  assuming  a  relation  of  cause  and  effect  to  exist,  when  we 
find  such  results  occurring  precisely  as  we  should  predict  ?  If  the 
medical  man  has  no  hesitation  in  regarding  those  severer  derange- 
ments of  the  excretory  organs,  which  are  so  common  amongst  those 
who  commit  habitual  excesses  in  eating  and  drinking,  as  the  conse- 
quence of  those  excesses,  why  should  he  refrain  from  attributing 
the  milder  but  more  protracted  disorders  of  the  same  organs,  to  the 
less  violent  but  more  enduring  operation  of  the  same  cause  ? — u  The 
little  I  take,  does  me  no  harm/'  is  the  common  defence  of  those  who 
are  indisposed  to  abandon  an  agreeable  habit,  and  who  cannot  plead 
a  positive  benefit  derived  from  it;  but  before  such  a  statement  can 
be  justified,  the  individual  who  makes  it  ought  to  be  endowed  with 
the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  to  be  able  to  have  present  in  his  mind  the 
whole  future  history  of  his  bodily  fabric,  and  to  "Show  that  by  redu- 
cing the  amount  of  his  excess  to  a  measure  which  produces  no  imme- 
diately-injurious results,  he  has  not  merely  postponed  its  evil  conse- 
quences to  a  remote  period,  but  has  kept  himself  free  from  them 
altogether.  The  onus  probandi1  -lies  with  those  who  assume  the 
absence  of  a  connection,  which  is  indicated  by  every  fact  with  which 
we  are  acquainted. 

158.  Although  we  have  hitherto  been  considering  the  effects  of 
the  "  moderate  "  use  of  Alcoholic  stimulants  upon  the  excretory 
organs,  as  consisting  simply  in  augmenting  the  amount  of  labour 
they  are  called  upon  to  perform,  by  favouring  the  reception  of  too 
large  an  amount  of  alimentary  matter  into  the  system,  yet  there  is 
another  point  of  view  under  which  it  will  be  convenient  here  to 
examine  its  results;  namely,  the  direct  influence  of  the  alcoholic 
stimulus  upon  the  organs  themselves.  This  influence  may  for  a 
time  be  corrective  of  the  other,  and  may  thus  aid  in  concealing  and 
retarding  its  evil  consequences.  For  we  have  seen  (§  57)  that  the 
introduction  of  a  small  quantity  of  alcohol  into  the  circulation  has  a 
direct  action  upon  the  Kidney,  increasing  the  determination  of  blood 
to  that  organ,  and  tending  to  augment  its  secretion  ;  and  it  is  highly 
probable  that  it  has  a  similar  effect  upon  the  Liver,  more  especially 
as  the  blood  which  has  received  the  alcohol  by  the  absorbent  action 
of  the  gastric  veins,2  passes  through  that  organ  before  proceeding  to 
any  other  part  of  the  system.  In  this  manner,  the  call  for  increased 
action  of  these  two  depurating  organs3  being  met  by  augmented 

1  Onus  probandi —  burden  of  proof;  the  duty  of  proving. 
3  Gastric  veins  —  veins  of  the  stomach. 

3  Depurating  organs  —  organs  that  remove  refuse,  worn-out,  and  delete- 
rious matters  from  the  blood. 


128       .   SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

functiontii  activity  on  their  part,  a  system  of  compensation  is  main- 
tained,  whereby  the  effects  of  excess  are  neutralized  fora  time, — but 
only  for  a  time ;  for  as  surely  as  any  organ  is  habitually  exerted  in 
an  excessive  degree,  so  surely  must  its  vital  powers  be  prematurely 
exhausted,  the  remoteness  of  the  period  at  which  the  flagging  of  its 
power  begins  to  manifest  itself,  being  inversely  to  the  degree  of 
habitual  over-excitement.  Hence  we  have  additional  reason  for 
imputing  a  considerable  proportion  of  those  chronic  disorders  of  the 
excretory  organs  to  which  reference  has  been  more  especially  made, 
to  the  habitual  employment  of  alcoholic  liquors,  in  what  is  ordinarily 
considered  to  be  a  "moderate"  amount,  and  regarded  as  perfectly 
consistent  with  health,  if  not  required  to  maintain  it. 

159.  It  would  be  absurd,  however,  to  affirm  that  such  diseases 
always  proceed  from  this  cause  ;  since  those  who  practise  Total  Ab- 
stinence from  alcoholic  liquors  are  by  no  means  proof  against  other 
errors  in  dietetics ;  and  in  so  far  as  they  habitually  take  in  more 
food  than  their  system  needs,  they  will  be  liable  to  suffer  from  dis- 
order of  the  organs  whose  duty  it  is  to  eliminate  the  waste.     But 
they  will   be  much   sooner  warned  of  the  excess  they  have  com- 
mitted, if  the  stomach  refuses  to  digest  the  superfluity,  instead  of 
being  forced  by  artificial  stimulation  to  an  undue  exertion  of  its 
power;    and  an  attack  of  indigestion,  by  early  giving  a  salutary 
check  to  the  practice,  may  ward  off  its  remoter  consequences.     It 
is  the  freedom  from  such  checks,  up  .to  a  certain  time  of  life,  which 
encourages  in  those,  who  habitually  use  fermented  liquors  in  "mo- 
deration," and  who  at  the  same  time  practise  habitual  though  slight 
excess  in  the  amount  of  solid  food  which  they  consume,  the  delu- 
sive belief  that  in  neither  case  are  they  doing  themselves  any  harm. 

160.  Effect  upon  the  Stomach. — Such,  then,  are  the  consequences 
to  the  system  at  large,  which  Theory  and  Experience  join  to  indi- 
cate, as  resulting  from  such  an  habitual  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  as 
stimulates  the  appetite  to  desire,  and  the  stomach  to  digest,  a  larger 
amount  of  food  than  is  necessary  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  body ; 
and  we  have  next  to  inquire  into  the  effects  it  produces  upon  the 
Stomach  itself.     We  have  already  described  the  admitted  results 
of  what  is  commonly  regarded  as  "excess;"  and  we  shall  therefore 
at  present  limit  ourselves  to  the  inquiry,  whether  the  "  moderate" 
use  of  alcoholic  liquors  is  likely  to  be  productive  of  any  injurious 
consequences,  as  regards  this  important  organ.      All  our  knowledge 
of  the  action  of  stimulants  would  lead  to  the  conclusion,  that  when 
once  the  habit  of  employing  them  has  been  established,  and  the 
stomach  is  come  to  rely  (as  it  were)  upon  the  extraneous  aid  which 
they  afford,  its  power  of  performing  its  duty  without  such  aid  must 
be  impaired.     The  case  is  very  similar  to  that  of  sleep.     A  person 
x\  health,  and  not  subjected  to  any  unfavourable  influences,  is  natu- 


IN     SUSTAINING     THE     VITAL     TOWERS.  129 

rally  disposed  to  pass  as  much  time  in  repose,  as  his  system  needs 
for  its  renovation  ;  but  if  he  were  long  to  accustom  himself  to  the 
use  of  a  narcotic,  he  would  find  himself  completely  unable  to  sleep 
without  it.  And  experience  shows,  in  like  manner,  that  those  who 
have  long  been  habituated  to  the  moderate  use  of  Alcoholic  beve- 
rages with  their  meals,  are  seldom  able  to  discontinue  them  without 
a  temporary  loss  of  appetite  and  of  digestive  power, — unless,  in- 
deed, their  place  be  supplied  by  the  more  wholesome  excitement  of 
fresh  air  and  exercise. 

161.  With  many  persons,  the  evil,  so  far  as  the  Stomach  is  con- 
cerned, may  seem  to  be  confined  to  the  induction  of  this  state  of 
reliance  on  artificial  aid.  Year  after  year  passes  away,  without  anj 
indication  that  its  powers  have  been  overtasked,  or  that  any  un- 
healthy change  has  taken  place  in  its  circulation  or  nutrition  ;  and 
the  usual  dose  of  the  alcoholic  stimulant  appears  still  to  produce  its 
wonted  effect.  But  this  does  not  show  that  the  practice  is  really 
innocuous.  We  have  seen  that  whilst  a  potent  dose  of  a  poison 
speedily  manifests  its  action  by  the  violence  of  its  effects,  the  re- 
peated introduction  of  minute  doses  is  not  really  inoperative,  al- 
though the  effects  are  not  speedily  apparent.  If  the  stomach  be 
not  an  exception  to  the  general  law  of  the  action  of  stimulants  upon 
the  animal  body,  we  should  expect  that  by  the  habitual  over-excite- 
ment of  its  function,  in  however  trifling  a  degree,  its  vital  energy 
will  undergo  a  premature  depression ;  and  that  the  result  of  the 
moderate  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants  will  manifest  itself,  sooner  or 
later,  in  diminution  of  the  digestive  power.  The  earliest  indication 
of  this,  in  most  instances,  is  the  demand  for  the  augmentation  of 
the  stimulus  to  produce  the  same  result;  the  amount  which  was  at 
first  sufficient  to  whet  the  appetite  and  increase  the  digestive  power, 
being  no  longer  found  adequate.  If  the  demand  be  yielded  to,  and 
the  quantity  of  the  stimulus  be  augmented,  the  original  benefit 
seems  for  a  time  to  be  derived  from  it;  but  after  the  stomach  has 
become  tolerant  of  the  liquor,  that  which  at  first  excited  it  to  in- 
creased functional  activity,  does  so  no  longer,  and  a  further  increase 
is  called  for;  until  what  began  in  "moderation"  ends  in  positive 
excess,  with  all  its  consequent  evils.  But  supposing  this  deaiand 
not  to  be  felt,  or  not  to  be  yielded  to,  the  same  "moderate"  allow- 
ance being  indulged  in  for  a  long  course  of  years,  we  should  antici 
pate  that  injurious  consequences,  though  perhaps  long  postponed, 
must  ultimately  show  themselves;  and  that  such  is  the  case,  is  un- 
fortunately the  experience  of  a  vast  number,  who  suffer,  by  that 
'•  loss  of  tone"  of  the  stomach  which  is  so  common  an  attendant 
of  advancing  years,  for  the  too  great  activity  to  which  the  organ 
has  been  previously  forced,  during  the  long  period  of  early  and 
middle  life.  And  although  the  common  idea,  that  alcoholic  liquors 


130         SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

when  taken  in  small  quantities  have  a  tonic1  property,  may  render 
it  difficult  for  some  to  coincide  in  the  conclusion  that  the  real  effect 
of  the  habitual  use  of  even  this  small  quantity  must  be  of  the  op- 
posite kind, — exhaustive  instead  of  tonic, — yet  as  this  idea  has  no 
other  foundation  than  the  temporary  assistance  derived  from  the 
stimulating  powers  of  alcohol,  it  ought  not  to  prevent  our  recogni- 
tion of  the  consequences  which  might  be  theoretically  expected  to 
proceed  from  its  long-continued  action. 

162.  It  is  not  here  maintained,  however,  that  the  habitual  em- 
ployment   of   alcoholic    stimulants    in    small  quantity,  even  when 
coupled  with  habitual  excess  in  the  amount  of  food  ingested,  uniformly 
stands  to  the  loss  of  appetite  and  digestive  power  so  frequent  with 
the  advance  of  years,  in  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect;  for  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  habit  may  be  persevered  in  by  some  indi- 
viduals throughout  a  long  life,  without  the  manifestation  of  any 
injurious  results ;  whilst  on  the  other  hand,  it  cannot  but  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  disorder  in  question  may  be  induced  in  other  ways. 
But  the  existence  of  exceptional  cases  by  no  means  invalidates  the 
argument  based  upon  general  experience ;  any  more  than  oui-  occa- 
sionally meeting  with  individuals  who  have  daily  consumed  a  bottlo 
of  spirits,  and  have  yet  enjoyed  a  hearty  old  age,  warrants  us  in 
rejecting  the  evidence  which  indicates  that  such  a  consumption  would 
have,  in  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  mankind,  a  decided  tendency 
to  shorten  life.     Nor  does  it  follow,  that  because  the  loss  of  digestive 
power  may  be  justly  attributed  to  other  causes  when  this  one  has 
been  wanting,  it  has  been  inoperative  when  present.     In  fact,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  amongst  the  class  of  men  who  are  engaged 
in  active  mental  occupation,  and  who  justify  a  moderate  use  of  alco- 
holic liquors  on  the  ground  that  it  keeps  them  "up  to  their  work," 
the  expenditure  of  nervous  power,  consequent  upon  that  undue 
exertion  of  the  cerebral  functions  which  has  been  aided  by  the  con- 
tinual over-stimulation,  has  a  large  share  in  the  result. 

163.  Effect  upon  the  Nervous  System.  —  Every  medical  man  is 
familiar  with  cases,  in  which  the  "  wear  and  tear"  of  an  over-active 
life  has  been  sustained  with  little  apparent  loss  of  power  for  perhaps 
a  long  series  of  years;  but  in  which  there  is  a  sudden  failure  both 
of  mental  and  bodily  vigour,  as  manifested  in  deficiency  of  power 
of  continued  mental  exertion,  depression  of  spirits,  want  of  appetite, 
enfeebled  digestion,  and  the  whole  train  of  disordered  actions  which 
is  consequent  upon  this  condition.     It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  such 
a  state  may  arise  quite  independently  of  the  agency,  direct  or  indi- 
rect, of  habitual  stimulation;  one  instance,  in  particular,  is  strongly- 
present  to  the  writer's  recollection,  in  which  it  supervened  on  a  long 
course  of  excessive  mental  exertion,  in  an  individual  who  was  most 


Tonic  —  imparting  permanent  strength  and  vigour. 


IN     SUSTAINING    THE     VITAL    POWERS.  131 

moderate  in  everything  but  the  labour  of  his  brain,  and  who  rarely 
or  never  sought  for  artificial  support  from  alcoholic  stimulants.  But 
the  most  common  case  is  that,  in  which  two  sets  of  causes  are  in 
action  together.  An  habitual  system  of  over-exertion  of  the  nervous 
system  may  be  maintained  for  a  longer  time  by  many  persons,  with 
the  assistance  of  alcoholic  stimulants,  than  without  them ;  and  thus 
the  delusion  is  kept  up,  that  the  strength  is  not  really  overtasked : 
when  the  fact  is,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  prolongation  of  the  term 
of  over-exertion,  by  the  repeated  application  of  the  stimulus,  is 
really  expending  more  and  more  of  the  powers  of  the  nervous 
system,  and  preparing  for  a  more  complete  prostration  at  a  later 
period. 

164.  The  temporary  advantage,  then,  which  is  thus  gained,  is 
very  dearly  purchased.  The  man  who  habitually  abstains,  not 
merely  from  alcoholic  liquors,  but  from  other  artificial  provocatives, 
(misnamed  supports,)  to  the  endurance  of  mental  activity,  is  early 
warned  by  the  failure  of  his  intellectual  energy  and  cheerful  tone 
of  spirits,  that  he  is  over-tasking  his  brain  \  whilst  his  stomach  tells 
the  same  tale  in  another  way,  —  the  failure  of  power  to  digest  that 
which  the  fabric  really  needs  for  its  regeneration,  being  indicative 
of  an  exhaustion  of  nervous  energy.  A  short  period  of  rest  and 
change,  in  such  a  condition,  is  usually  sufficient  for  the  renovation 
of  the  system,  and  for  the  recovery  of  the  mental  and  bodily  vigour. 
But  the  case  is  very  different,  when  the  effort  has  been  sustained 
for  a  lengthened  series  of  years,  by  means  of  the  delusive  support 
afforded  by  alcoholic  liquors ;  for  as  the  excessive  expenditure  of 
nervous  power  has  been  greater,  so  is  the  exhaustion  more  complete ; 
and  as  the  stomach  has  been  longer  over-excited  and  over-tasked,  its 
tone  is  the  more  seriously  injured,  not  merely  by  the  depression 
consequent  upon  its  own  over-work,  but  by  the  impairment  of  the 
nervous  power  which  is  required  for  its  due  activity.  Thus,  then, 
although  the  consequences  of  habitual  over-exertion  of  the  brain 
may  be  less  speedily  felt,  when  the  stomach  is  kept  up,  by  alcoholic 
stimulants,  to  a  state  of  extraordinary  activity  of  supply,  —  and 
although,  in  like  manner,  the  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants 
may  cause  the  stomach  to  be  less  susceptible  of  the  loss  of  the 
accustomed  energy, — yet,  when  the  crisis  does  come,  each  condition 
aggravates  the  other;  the  effects  of  undue  disintegration  of  the 
nervous  matter  being  more  difficult  to  repair,  when  the  nutritive 
apparatus  is  depressed  in  functional  power ;  and  the  restoration 
of  the  tone  of  the  stomach  being  impeded  by  the  deficiency 
of  nervous  energy,  when  this  has  been  lowered  by  excessive  action 
of  the  brain.  The  length  of  time  then  required  for  the  cure,  is 
proportional  to  the  duration  of  the  causes  which  have  induced  the 
malady ;  and  tedious  and  difficult  is  the  process  of  restoration,  aw 
every  medical  man  well  knows.  We  shall  hereafter  havo  occasion 


132         SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

(§§  227,  228,)  to  consider  the  best  methods  of  medical  and  hygienic  ' 
treatment  for  this  condition ;  and  shall  show  that  the  measures 
which  experience  now  proves  to  be  the  most  efficacious  means  of 
restoring  the  vigour  of  the  system,  are  precisely  such  as  the  phy- 
siologist would  recommend,  under  the  guidance  of  the  preceding 
views  of  the  causation  of  the  morbid  state  in  question. 

165.  We  have  thus  been  led  to  consider  the  remote  influences  of 
the  prolonged  and  habitual  use  of  fermented  liquors,  in  however 
"moderate"  a  quantity,  upon  the  digestive  apparatus,  the  excretory 
organs,  and  the  nervous  system ;  and  we  have  found  that  we  may 
with  the  highest  probability,  if  not  with  absolute  certainty,  attribute 
many  of  the  chronic  disorders  which  affect  these  organs  in  advancing 
life, — especially  that  loss  of  functional  power,  which  is  frequently 
the  earliest  stage   of  such   disorders,  and   which,  if  appropriately 
treated  in  the  first  instance,  might  not  proceed  further, — to  the 
excessive  action  to  which  they  have   been   subjected,   under  the 
stimulating  influence  of  alcoholic  beverages.     In  so  far,  therefore, 
as  the  use  of  these  beverages  causes  or  favours  such  excessive  action, 
it  must  in  the  end  be  hurtful,  rather  than  beneficial,  to  the  general 
health ;  notwithstanding  that  its  temporary  effect  may  appear  to  be 
wholesome  and  exhilarating,  or  at  any  rate,  if  negative  for  good,  to 
be  also  negative  for  evil.     But  we  have  further  to  consider,  whether 
'his  inference  is  borne  out  by  the  effects  of  alcoholic  liquors  taken 
habitually  in  small  quantities,  upon  the  functions  of  circulation  and 
nutrition. 

166.  Effect  upon  the  Circulation. — It  may  be  difficult  to  prove 
that  the  ingestion  of  a  small  quantity  of  Alcoholic  liquor,  taken  in 
conjunction  with  food,  has  any  decidedly  stimulating  influence  upon 
the  general  circulation;  since  a  certain  acceleration  of  the  pulse, 
and  an  increase  in  its  fulness,  normally  occur  during  digestion ;  and 
the  augmentation  produced  by  the  alcohol  may  be  so  trifling  as  to 
be  scarcely  detectible.     Such  augmentation,  however,  is  certainly 
produced  by  the  imbibition  of  a  quantity  usually  accounted  "  mode- 
rate ;"  and  we  have  now  to  inquire,  whether  it  can  recur  habitually 
through  a  long  series  of  years,  without  producing  injurious  results. 
There  cannot  be  a  doubt  that,  in  a  healthy  person,  the  rate  of  the 
circulation  is  proportioned  to  the  amount  of  functional  activity  of 
the  principal  organs  of  the  body.     We  find  that  it  depends  in  great 
degree  upon  muscular  exertion,  as  put  forth  in  the  maintenance  of 
the  erect  posture,  and  still  more  in  active  exercise ;  but  it  may  be 
accelerated  also  by  exalted  activity  of  the  nervous  system,  which 
6ets  up  an  unusual  demand  for  blood  in  the  brain ;  and  its  increase 
of  rate  during  the  digestive  process  appears  to  be  connected  with  the 

1  Hygienic — a  proper  regulation  of  exercise,  mental  and  bodily;  food, 
•Irink,  clothing,  bathiug,  and  exposure  to  pure  fresh  air. 


IN    SUSTAINING    THE    VITAL    POWERS  133 

large  supply  of  blood  then  transmitted  to  the  chylopoietic  viscera,1 
and  required  for  the  due  performance  of  their  several  offices.  Now 
whenever  the  circulation  undergoes  any  considerable  acceleration, 
there  is  a  tendency  to  a  recurrence  of  local  congestions,  arising  from 
the  want  of  power,  on  the  part  of  the  vessels  of  some  particular 
organ,  to  allow  their  current  to  pass  at  the  same  rate  with  the  rest. 
Of  this  we  have  a  familiar  example  in  that  accumulation  of  blood 
in  the  pulmonary  arteries,  which  is  liable  to  take  place  in  most 
persons  during  violent  muscular  exertion,  producing  the  feeling  of 
being  "out  of  breath ;"  and  which  is  particularly  marked  in  those, 
in  whom  there  exists  some  disordered  condition  of  the  lungs,  that 
obstructs  the  passage  of  blood  through  their  capillaries.2 

167.  There  are  few  persons,  however,  in  whom  there  is  not  some 
tendency  to  an  irregularity  of  the  circulation,  which  manifests  itself 
in  a  torpor  in  some  parts,  and  an  undue  activity  in  others.     One  of 
the  most  common  forms  of  this,  especially  among  individuals  who 
work  their  brains  more  than  their  muscles,  is  a  torpor  of  the  current 
in  the  extremities,  and  an  undue  activity  in  the  cephalic  circulation ; 
so  that  the  head  is  habitually  heated,  whilst  the  hands  and  feet  are 
cold.     Now  where  such  is  the  case,  we  find  that  even  the  normal 
acceleration  produced  by  the  ingestion  of  food  aggravates  this  disor- 
dered condition ;  so  that  the  face  becomes  more  flushed,  and  the 
head  more  hot  after  meals,  than  at  any  other  time.3     Precisely  the 
same  result  is  observable  in  such  persons,  after  the  use  of  even  a 
small  quantity  of  alcoholic  stimulant ;  and  the  habitual  production 
of  it  cannot  be  but  injurious,  as  tending  to  establish  that  inequality 
which  it  should  be  our  endeavour  to  counteract. 

168.  Similar  inequalities  exist  in  different  individuals,  in  regard 
to  other  organs ;  thus  it  very  frequently  happens  that  the  Liver  is 
the  part  in  which  a  disposition  to  torpidity  of  circulation  exists ; 
and  congestion  of  its  portal  system  of  vessels  must  stagnate  the 
whole  of  the  circulation  through  the  chylopoietic  viscera,  from  which 
the  blood  of  that  system  is  derived.     Any  such  disposition  to  local 
congestion  must  operate  with  increased  force  in  producing  general 
irregularity  of  the  circulation,  when  the  rate  of  movement  is  unduly 
accelerated;  just  as  the  outlets  to  a  theatre,  which  suffice  to  dis- 
charge the  entire  audience  in  a  few  minutes,  when  the  pressure  to- 
wards them  is  uniform  and  regular,  are  speedily  blocked  up  and 
produce  a  stagnation  of  the  entire  current,  whilst,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  an  alarm  of  fire,  every  one  is  rushing  toward  them  with 

1  Chylopoiet.ic  viscera  —  organs  which  form  chyle. 

2  Capillaries  —  very  minute,  hair-like  vessels. 

3  The  acceleration  produced  by  muscular  exercise,  will  of  course  be  uu 
attended  by  this  result ;   the  cause  of  the  acceleration  being  such  as  tu 
divert  the  current  from  the  brain  to  the  limbs,  and  to  make  it  pass  through 
them  with  energy  and  rapidity. 

12 


134          SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 

undue  haste.  And  as  we  have  seen  that  hepatic  and  abdominal 
congestions  are  among  the  ordinary  results  of  excess  in  the  use 
of  alcoholic  liquors  (§  155),  it  cannot  be  doubted,  but  that  even 
their  moderate  employment  must  aggravate  any  tendency  to  such 
derangement  of  the  circulation,  when  it  already  exists.  No  such 
derangement  can  be  habitual,  and  be  thus  continually  liable  to  ag- 
gravation, without  laying  a  foundation  for  other  more  serious  dis- 
orders.— So,  again,  as  we  have  seen  that  habitual  excess  in  alcoholic 
liquors  has  a  tendency  to  produce  determination  of  the  blood  towards 
the  Kidneys,  and  thereby  to  favour  the  development  of  many  serious 
diseases  in  those  organs  (§§  54-58),  we  can  scarcely  refuse  to  admit 
that  where  the  least  tendency  to  disordered  action  already  exists  in 
them,  it  must  be  aggravated  by  the  habitual  recurrence  of"  such  a 
slight  increase  in  the  afflux  of  blood  to  them,  as  would  of  itself 
attract  no  attention. 

169.  -If  it  be  said,  that  in  thus  reasoning  upon  probabilities,  we 
are  going  further  than  experience  warrants  us  in  doing,  we  must 
again  take  leave  to  refer  to  the  argument  from  analogy  on  which 
we  have  already  dwelt  (§  156),  as  a  justification  of  our  somewhat 
theoretical  propositions.  The  whole  tendency  of  modern  patho- 
logical l  research  has  been  to  show,  that  the  human  frame,  if  en- 
dowed with  an  ordinary  amount  of  inherent  vigour,  is  no  other- 
wise incident  to  disease,  than  as  it  is  in  various  ways  subjected  to 
the  agency  of  causes  which  produce  a  departure  from  the  normal 
play  of  its  functions;  and  that  although  old  age  and  decay  are  in- 
evitable, diseases  are  not,  being  preventible  in  the  precise  proportion 
in  which  we  are  able  to  discover  and  eradicate  their  causes.  And 
when  we  can  clearly  trace  a  relation'  of  cause  and  effect,  between 
obvious  and  flagrant  violations  of  the  rules  of  health,  and  the  oc- 
currence of  certain  forms  of  acute  disease,  we  seem  justified  in 
assuming  that  minor  but  habitual  violations  of  the  same  kind  must 
be  allowed  to  participate,  at  any  rate,  in  the  production  of  chronic 
diseases  of  the  same  order.  The  very  nature  of  chronic  disease 
implies  a  prolonged  action  of  the  causes  in  which  it  arises ;  for  no 
such  determinate  alteration  of  the  normal  functions  as  it  involves, 
can  be  at  all  accounted  for  by  any  temporary  causes  of  perversion ; 
— these  either  inducing  a  transitory  disorder,  or,  if  acting  with 
sufficient  intensity,  exciting  an  attack  of  acute  disease.  In  chronic 
diseases  we  find  that  the  organ  has,  so  to  speak,  grown  to  its  per- 
verted action  j  so  that  no  curative  measure  is  permanently  beneficial, 
which  does  not  first  act  by  withdrawing  the  cause  of  the  original 
departure  from  the  healthy  state,  and  by  placing  the  organ  in  the 
best  condition  for  its  recovery.  — We  are  fully  justified,  therefore, 
by  all  that  we  know  of  the  causes  of  disease,  in  asserting  that  the 

'•Pathological  —  relating  to  the  nature,  causes,  character  and  effects  of 
disease. 


IN     SUSTAINING     THE     \TITAL    POWERS.  135 

haoitual  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  by  healthy  individuals,  even  m 
email  quantities,  is  likely,  when  sufficiently  protracted,  to  favour 
the  development  of  such  chronic  disorders,  as  originally  depend 
upon  an  irregularity  in  the  movement  of  the  circulating  current,  or 
are  liable  to  be  augmented  by  it. 

170.  Effect  upon  Nutrition.  —  There  appears,  moreover,  to  be 
an  adequate  amount  of  evidence,  that  the  practice  in  question  has 
an  unfavourable  influence  upon  the  Nutritive  operations,  by  which 
the  alimentary  materials  first  converted  into  blood  are  applied  to 
the  regeneration  of  the  living  tissues.     This  influence   is  not  so 
clearly  manifested   in   the  ordinary  course  of  these  operations,  — 
which  indeed  is  not  demonstrably  aifected  by  it, — as  in  the  extra- 
ordinary demand  which  is  made  upon  the  regenerative  powers,  for 
the  repair  of  injuries  occasioned  by  accident  or  disease.     It  is  well 
known  to  Surgeons,  that  the  most  desirable  of  all  modes  by  which 
the  reparation  of  wounds  can  be  effected,  is  the  simple  adhesive 
process,  known  as  "  union  by  the  first  intention ',"  and  that  where, 
in  consequence  of  loss  of  substance,  union  by  the  first  intention 
cannot  be  effected,  the  most  favourable  method  is  that  which  is 
termed  the  "scabbing  process;"  in  which  a  hard  crust  being  formed 
upon  the  surface,  so  as  to  protect  it  from  the  irritating  action  of  the 
atmosphere,  a  continued  growth   or  re-formation    of  tissue  takes 
place  beneath,  without  any  interruption  from  inflammatory  action, 
until  complete  filling-up  has  been  effected,  and  a  new  cutaneous 
surface  is  formed  beneath  the  scab.     But  it  too  frequently  happens 
that  the  reparative  processes  cannot  be  induced  to  take  place  after 
either  of  these  fashions,  but  that  inflammatory  action  is  set  up  in 
the  wound,  and  matter  forms  between  its  lips,  or  beneath  the  scab, 
rendering   its  detachment  necessary,  and  thus   re-converting    the 
wound  into  an  open  sore.     The  healing  of  this  sore  must  be  accom- 
plished by  the  much  less  healthy  process  of  suppurating  granula- 
tion;  during  the  progress  of  which  a  large  amount  of  nutritive 
material  runs  to  waste  as  purulent  discharge,  whilst  a  great  degree 
of  constitutional  irritation  is  often  set  up ;  and  the  best  termination 
of  which  is  the  formation  of  a  cicatrix,  that  subsequently  undergoes 
an  unsightly  and  often  inconvenient  contraction,  from  which  the 
new  tissue  formed  under  a  scab  is  free. 

171.  Now  the  occurrence  of  the  first  of  these  modifications  of 
the  healing  process,  is  an  obvious  indication  of  such  a  healthful 
condition  of  the  nutritive  operations,  as  can  repair  the  effects  of  an 
injury  in  the  most  complete  manner,  with  the  least  possible  waste 
of  nutritive  material,  and  with  the  most  entire  absence  of  constitu- 
tional disturbance.     Whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the  impossibility 
of  procuring  it,  even  under  the  most  favourable  circumstances  of 
rest,  fresh  air,  and  wholesome  aliment,  indicates  that  the  nutritive 
functions  are  not  in  their  normal  condition.     Amongst  the  lower 


136         SUPPOSED  USES  OP  ALCOHOL 

animals  we  seldom  find  injuries  repaired  in  any  less  favourable 
mode,  unless  the  part  be  placed  in  circumstances  adverse  to  this 
healthy  action.  But  among  "  civilized"  communities  of  men,  the 
case  is  very  different ;  for  the  occurrence  of  the  scabbing  process, 
in  the  case  of  any  but  trivial  wounds,  is  the  exception,  not  the 
rule,  —  being,  in  fact,  so  rare  that  many  Surgeons  never  think  of 
attempting  to  bring  it  about.  Now  that  there  is  nothing  essentially 
different  in  the  constitution  of  Man,  which  places  him  in  this  re- 
spect at  a  disadvantage  as  compared  with  the  lower  animals,  ap- 
pears from  the  fact  that  all  who  have  visited  "  savage"  nations,  in 
whom  more  constant  exposure  to  air  is  practised,  and  who  enjoy 
immunity  from  many  causes  of  disease  which  exist  in  civilized 
communities,  have  been  struck  with  the  facility  with  which  wounds 
heal  among  them,  and  with  their  remarkable  freedom  from  that 
constitutional  disturbance,  which  amongst  ourselves  almost  inva- 
riably follows  severe  injuries.  Thus  Hawkesworth  in  his  voyage  to 
New  Zealand  makes  particular  mention  of  "the  facility  with  which 
wounds  healed  that  had  left  scars  behind  them,  and  that  we  saw  in 
a  recent  state  ]  when  we  saw  the  man  who  had  been  shot  with  the 
musket  ball  through  the  fleshy  part  of  the  arm,  his  wound  seemed 
to  be  so  well  digested,  and  in  so  fair  a  way  of  being  perfectly  healed, 
that  if  I  had  not  known  no  application  had  been  made  to  it,  I 
should  certainly  have  enquired  with  a  very  interested  curiosity  after 
the  vulnerary  herbs  and  surgical  art  of  the  country."  Of  these 
people,  he  states  that  at  that  period  water  was  their  sole  and 
universal  liquor. 

172.  Now,  it  would  be  absurd  to  maintain  that  the  habitual 
moderate  use  of  fermented  liquors  is  the  sole  reason  of  the  rarity  of 
this  healthful  operation  of  the  reparative  process  amongst  ourselves  j 
since  a  multitude  of  other  departures  from  the  laws  of  health  are 
continually  practised  by  almost  every  member  of  a  civilized  commu- 
nity. But  if  we  look  to  the  unquestionable  fact,  that  habitual 
excess  in  the  use  of  fermented  liquors  produces  a  condition  alto- 
gether opposed  to  the  healthful  performance  of  these  processes,  so 
that  the  slightest  scratch  or  abrasion  may  give  rise  to  a  rapidly-fatal 
attack  of  inflammation  (§  63),  it  can  scarcely  be  denied  that  where 
a  minor  departure  from  the  normal  condition  shows  itself,  and  the 
same  cause  has  been  in  action  in  less  intensity,  that  departure  may 
be  reasonably  considered,  in  part  at  least,  as  its  effect.  And  this 
conclusion  is  remarkably  confirmed  by  the  surgical  experience  of  the 
late  campaigns  in  India,  on  occasions  on  which  there  had  been,  from 
accidental  causes,  an  interruption  in  the  usual  supply  of  spirits. 
Thus  Mr.  Havelock,  in  his  "  Narrative  "  in  reference  to  the  wounded, 
after  the  victories  in  India,  observes  : — "  The  Medical  Officers  of  this 
army  have  distinctly  attributed  to  their  previous  abstinence  from 
«T,rong  drink  the  rapid  recovery  of  the  wounded  at  Ghuznee."  And 


IN     SUSTAINING     THE     VITAL     POWERS.  lo? 

Mi  Atkinson,  in  his  work  on  Afghanistan,  is  more  explicit,  stating 
that  "all  the  sword  cuts,  which  were  very  numerous,  and  many  of 
them  very  deep,  united  in  the  most  satisfactory  manner;  which  we 
decidedly  attributed  to  the  men  having  been  without  rum  for  the 
previous  six  weeks.  In-  consequence,  there  was  no  inflammatory 
action  to  produce  fever  and  interrupt  the  adhesion  of  the  parts." 

173.  From  the  foregoing  considerations,  then,  we  seem  entitled 
to  draw  the  general  conclusion  that,  in  the  "  average  man,"  the 
habitual  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors,  in  moderate  or  even  in  small 
quantities,  is  not  merely  unnecessary  for  the  maintenance  of  bodily 
and  mental  vigour,  but  is  even  unfavourable  to  the  permanent  en- 
joyment of  health,  even  though  it  may  for  a  time  appear  to  contri- 
bute to  it.  For,  as  it  is  justly  remarked  by  Dr.  Robertson,  "that 
man  only  is  in  good  health,  who  recovers  rapidly  from  the  simple 
accidents  incidental  to  his  occupation,  and  from  the  simple  disorders 
incidental  to  his  humanity  and  to  the  climate  he  lives  in,  and  who 
can  bear  the  treatment  that  those  accidents  or  those  disorders  de- 
mand;" and  if  such  be  not  the  case,  we  may  feel  confident,  th;it 
however  great  the  temporary  power  of  exertion  may  be,  such  power 
is  destined  to  give  way  at  a  period  much  earlier  than  that  of  its  nor- 
mal duration.  And  if  it  be  true,  as  we  have  endeavoured  to  show, 
that  the  effect  of  the  habit  is  not  merely  to  induce  certain  predispo- 
sitions to  disease  by  its  own  agency,  but  also  to  favour  almost  any 
of  those  which  may  already  exist  in  a  latent  form,  we  have  an  addi- 
tional right  to  affirm,  that  even  the  most  moderate  habitual  use  of 
alcoholic  liquors  becomes  to  the  "average  man"  positively  injurious, 
if  protracted  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  allow  of  the  develop- 
ment of  its  effects. 


12* 


138  USE    OF     ALCOHOL 


CHAPTER   III. 

ARE  THERE  ANY  SPECIAL  MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  BODILY 
OR  MENTAL  CONDITION  OF  MAN,  SHORT  OF  ACTUAL  DISEASE, 
IN  WHICH  THE  OCCASIONAL  OR  HABITUAL  USE  OF  ALCOHOLIC 
LIQUORS  MAY  BE  NECESSARY  OR  BENEFICIAL  ? 

174.  There  appear  to  be  three  classes  of  cases,  in  which  recourse 
may  be    had  with   temporary  advantage   to  the  use  of  Alcouolic 
liquors ;  those,  in  the  first  place,  in  which  there  is  a  demand  for 
some  extraordinary  exertion  of  the  animal  powers,  and  in  which  the 
occurrence  of  subsequent  depression  may  not  be  an  adequate  objec- 
tion to  the  employment  of  a  stimulus  that  enables  the  system  to 
meet  it;  those,  in  the  second  place,  in  which  there  is  a  deficiency  of 
the  proper  sustenance,  and  in  which  alcohol  serves  as  a  heat-pro- 
ducing article  of  food  ;  and  those,  in  the  third  place,  in  which  there 
is  a  want  of  sufficient  vigour  on  the  part  of  the  system  itself,  to  digest 
and  assimilate  the  aliment  which  it  reaHy  needs  for  its  support. 

I. DEMAND    FOR   EXTRAORDINARY   EXERTION. 

175.  Of  the  first  class,  the  following  appropriate  example  maybe 
extracted  from  the  letter  of  Dr.  J.  D.  Hooker,  already  cited,  fl  1 
know  of  only  one  occasion,"  he  says,  "  on  which  the  use  of  spirits 
appeared  indispensable ;  and  that  was,  when  a  little  more  exertion 
at  the  crowning  of  a  mighty  and  long-continued  effort  was  demanded. 
Thus  the  ship,  when  sailing  in  the  pack-ice,  is  sometimes  beset,  or 
falls  to  leeward  into  the  lee-ice.     This  takes  two  or  three  minutes; 
but  if  there  is  much  wind,  it  takes  many  hours  to  get  her  out.     Not 
being  in  command,  the  sails  are  of  no  use;  and  the  ice  prevents  her 
from  moving  in  any  way  but  with  it  to  leeward.     Under  these  cir- 
cumstances, the  only  way  to  get  her  out,  is  by  fastening  ropes  from 
the  ship  to  the  larger  masses  of  ice,  and  warping  her  out  by  main 
force  against  the  wind.     Now  I  have  seen  every  officer  and  man  in 
the  ship  straining  at  the  capstan  for  hours  together,  through  snow 
and  sleet,  with  the  perspiration  running  down  our  faces  and  bodies 
like  water.     Towards  the  end  of  such  a  struggle,  at  the  mighty 
crowning  effort,  I  have  seen  a  little  grog  work  wonders.    I  could  not 
have  drunk  hot  coffee  without  stopping  to  cool ;  nor  if  I  had,  do  I 
think  it  would  have  supplied  the  temporary  amount  of  strength 
which   was  called  for  on  the  spot  under  circumstances   like  this. 
These,  however,  are  extreme  cases,  which  do  not  affect  the  sailor 
in  his  ordinary  condition,  and  which  any  ship  might  be  well  pre- 
pared for." 


IN     EXCEPTIONAL    CASES.  139 

176.  It  must  be  within  the  experience  of  most  persons,  that  a 
very  small   quantity  of   Alcoholic  stimulus    has    been    of  similar 
efficacy  in  sustaining  the  nervo-muscular  energy  under  some  tempo- 
rary effort,  which  circumstances  called  for,  and  to  which  the  system, 
exhausted  by  previous  fatigue,  would  not  otherwise  have  be^n  equal. 
And  the  writer  can  speak  from  his  own  knowledge  of  its  corres- 
ponding effect,  in   quickening  and  freshening  the  mental  power, 
during  a  brief  period  through  which  it  could  not  otherwise  have 
been  sustained.     Of  course,  in  every  such  case,  a  corresponding  de- 
pression is  subsequently  felt ;  but  this  depression  is  rather  traceable 
to  the  fatigue  of  over-exertion,  than  to  the  re-action  consequent 
upon  over-excitement.    For,  in  the  cases  alluded  to,  the  effect  of  the 
alcoholic  liquor  is  not  to  quicken  the  circulation,  or  to  exalt  any  of 
the  functions  above  their  normal  activity,  but  merely  to  keep  them 
up  to  par :  and  its  use  for  such  a  purpose  is  therefore  free  from 
many  of  the  objections,  which  have  been  urged  against  its  habitual 
employment. 

177.  But  it  must  not  hence  be  supposed  that  recourse  to  Alco- 
holic liquors  can  habitually  be  had  with  impunity  for  purposes  of 
this  kind.     Every  kind  of  "forcing"  must  be  in  the  end  injurious 
to  the  vital  powers,  and  more  especially  to  those  of  the  nervous 
system  ;  and  the  more  frequently  and  violently  it  is  practised,  the 
more    speedily  may  we  expect  that  functional    derangement  will 
manifest  itself.     Extreme  over-tasking  of  its  powers  is  often  so  im- 
mediately  followed    by  apoplexy,  paralysis,  epilepsy,    mental    de- 
rangement, or  fatuity,  that  no  one  has  any  hesitation  in  regarding 
these  as  the  natural  results  of  the  previous  immoderate  exertion ; 
and  we  appear  equally  justified  in    attributing  similar  results  to 
similar  causes,  however  remote  the  results  may  be,  where  causes 
less  potent  have  been  in  continual  or  frequently-repeated  operation. 
For  every  such  irregularity  tends  to  derange  the  nutrition  of  thf 
system  ;  and   if   a  renewal   of   the   irregularity  should  take  place 
before  the  effects  of  the  preceding  derangement  have  been  recovered 
from,  they  are  of  course  aggravated ;  and  thus  a  cumulative  result 
is  produced,  and  a  permanently-disordered  state  of  nutrition  estab- 
lished, which  manifests  itself  at  last  in  some  serious  and  settled  form 
of  cerebral  disease. 

178.  The  case  resembles  that  of  the  racer,  excited  to  put  fort! 
his  utmost  speed,  or  the  jaded  roadster  goaded  to  a  temporary  im- 
provement of  his  pace,  by  the  application  of  the  spur.     The  spur 
gives  no  strength  j  but,  like  the  dram  to  the  sailor  toiling  at  the 
capstan,  or  the  glass  of  wine  to  the  public  speaker  wearied  with  his 
previous  exertions,  it  calls  forth  the  most  vigorous  exercise  of  the 
remaining  strength      The  racer  may  fall  dead  on  the  spot:    tho 
roadster  may  sink  from  exhaustion ;  but  the  spur  has  only  been  tho 
indirect  means  of  bringing  about  this  catastrophe,  the  real  cause  of 


140  USE    OP    ALCOHOL 

it  being  the  undue  exertion  which  it  has  called  forth.  And  in  like 
manner,  when  recourse  has  been  had  to  alcoholic  liquors,  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  power  to  meet  some  extraordinary  demand  upon 
the  bodily  or  mental  energy,  and  the  amount  used  has  been  merely 
such  as  to  meet  that  demand,  we  ought  to  attribute  the  subsequent 
exhaustion  rather  to  the  violence  of  the  effort  which  has  been  put 
forth,  than  to  the  stimulus,  trifling  in  itself,  by  which  the  system 
was  rendered  capable  of  making  it.  The  occasional  dram  or  glass 
of  wine  would  of  itself  have  produced  but  little  mischief  in  com- 
parison ;  and  its  consequences  might  have  been  manifested  in  some 
other  way.  But  the  frequent  over-exertion  of  the  vital  powers, 
especially  those  of  the  nervous  system,  must  ultimately  tell  upon  the 
fabric,  under  whatever  kind  of  excitement  it  is  called  forth. 

179.  However  desirable,  then,  it  may  be  to  avoid  the  necessity 
for  such  immoderate  exertion,  it  can  scarcely  be  denied  that  occa^ 
sions  will  arise  in  the  experience  of  some  persons,  in  which  the 
temporary  assistance  derived  from  Alcoholic  liquors  could  scarcely 
be  replaced  by  any  other.  When  the  choice  lies  between  the  easy 
and  satisfactory  performance  of  the  prescribed  duty,  and  the  dis- 
charge of  it  as  a  task  which  must  be  got  through  at  all  hazards  by 
the  most  determined  bracing-up  of  the  powers  for  its  execution, 
there  can  scarcely  be  a  doubt,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  that  if 
the  former  can  be  procured  by  the  use  of  such  a  small  dose  of 
alcohol  as  shall  merely  raise  the  vital  powers  for  a  time  to  their 
usual  energy,  it  will  be  followed  by  less  of  subsequent  exhaustion 
than  the  latter.  But  again,  he  would  repeat, — and  he  cannot  do  so 
too  often,  or  too  earnestly,  —  that  the  habitual  recourse  to  such  a 
practice  is  fraught  with  the  greatest  prospective  danger ;  since  it 
encourages  the  delusive  idea,  that  the  exertion  which  is  thus  for  a 
time  sustained,  is  really  doing  no  injury  to  the  system ;  besides 
which,  it  is  next  to  impossible  that  the  frequent  use  of  alcoholic 
liquors,  however  moderate,  can  be  persevered  in,  for  any  length  of 
time,  without  favouring  the  production  of  that  disordered  state  of 
nutrition  of  the  brain,  which  the  irregular  activity  of  the  nervous 
system  has  of  itself  so  marked  a  tendency  to  generate.  It  should 
rather  be  the  aim  of  those  who  have  accustomed  themselves  to  such 
assistance,  to  avoid  the  necessity  (so  far  as  may  be  possible)  for  such 
extra-exertion ;  and  to  prepare  themselves  to  meet  it,  when  it  is  in- 
dispensable, by  careful  and  constant  attention  to  all  the  rules  of 
health.  The  most  beneficial  results  from  such  a  use  of  stimulants, 
are  to  be  experienced  by  those  who  are  habitually  abstinent;  since 
the  quantity  of  alcoholic  liquor  which  they  require  for  the  purpose 
is  extremely  small  j  and  whatever  injurious  effects  it  may  produce 
will  be  more  likely  to  be  dissipated,  when  a  considerable  iutervul 
elapses  before  it  is  again  resorted  to.  When  alcoholic  liquor  is  em- 
ployed as  an  ordinary  beverage,  the  quantity  required  to  give  thu 


IN     EXCEPTIONAL    CASES.  141 

desired  aid,  on  the  occasions  in  question,  is  such  as  must  of  itself 
exert  a  prejudicial  influence  on  the  system. 

180.  Nearly  allied  to  the  preceding  cases,  are  those  in  which  the 
use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  may  be  found  beneficial,  in  assisting  to  for- 
tify the  system  against  a  temporary  exposure  to  cold  or  damp,  sepa- 
rately, or  in  combination.  We  have  already  examined  into  the 
reputed  efficacy  of  alcoholic  liquors  in  favouring  the  resistance  to 
cold ;  and  have  found  reason  to  adopt  the  conclusion,  that  this  repu- 
tation is  altogether  fallacious  as  regards  the  power  of  continued 
endurance.  There  can  scarcely  be  a  question,  however,  that  al- 
though, considered  simply  as  a  heat-producing  material,  alcohol  is 
inferior  in  some  important  particulars  to  such  oleaginous  matters  as 
can  be  readily  introduced  into  the  current  of  blood,  it  has  for  a  time 
the  power  of  keeping  off  the  chilling  influence  of  severe  external 
cold,  in  virtue  of  the  augmented  rapidity  of  the  circulation  which  it 
induces,  and  particularly  of  the  determination  of  blood  which  it 
favours  towards  the  vessels  of  the  skin.  And  this  effect  seems  to 
be  exerted  with  still  greater  benefit,  when  cold  and  damp  are  acting 
together ;  their  depressing  influence  being  kept  at  bay  for  a  time  by 
the  moderate  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants,  so  that  no  injurious  result 
is  subsequently  felt  from  an  exposure  which  might  otherwise  have 
been  followed  by  a  severe  "  cold,"  an  attack  of  rheumatism,  or  some 
other  malady,  as  determined  by  the  idiosyncracy  l  of  the  individual. 

181.  It  is  not  here  argued,  however,  that  Alcoholic  liquors  afford 
the  best  means  of  resisting  such  influences.  On  the  contrary,  it  is 
within  the  experience  of  most  persons,,  that  muscular  exertion,  where 
it  can  be  employed,  is  a  far  better  means  of  keeping  up  that  vigour 
of  the  circulation  which  shall  resist  the  influence  of  the  external 
chill,  than  the  use  of  any  stimulants  whatever  in  a  state  of  bodily 
inactivity.  But  where  circumstances  prevent  a  resort,  to  the  former, 
and  the  choice  lies  among  the  best  internal  means  of  protection, — 
as  in  the  case  of  a  traveller  exposed  to  cold  and  wet  on  the  top  of  a 
coach, — we  seem  justified  in  believing  that  if  the  chilling  influence 
is  powerful  and  likely  to  be  of  short  duration,  it  may  be  better  re- 
sisted by  a  stimulating  dose  of  alcoholic  liquor,  than  in  any  other 
way.  But  if  the  resisting  power  is  to  be  prolonged,  such  a  course 
is  most  undesirable ;  for  the  system  is  never  so  obnoxious  to  the 
depressing  influence  of  cold  and  damp,  as  when  it  is  already  in  a 
state  of  depression  resulting  from  previous  over-stimulation  •  and 
the  use  of  coffee,  cocoa,  and  other  hot  beverages,  with  solid  food, 
which  shall  aid  in  permanently  sustaining  the  heat  of  the  system,  is 
then  unquestionably  to  be  preferred.  Here,  again,  we  would  remark, 
that  the  habitual  abstainer  has  decidedly  the  advantage,  since  a  very 
email  amount  of  the  stimulus  is  sufficient,  as  in  the  former  case,  to 

1  Idiosyncracy  —  constitutional  peculiarity. 


142  USE    OF    ALCOHOL 

produce  the  desired  result;  and  that  if  recourse  be  too  frequently 
had  to  it,  the  remote  consequences  of  alcoholic  excitement  may  be 
expected  to  manifest  themselves. 

II. DEFICIENCY    OF    OTHER   ADEQUATE    SUSTENANCE. 

182.  The  second  class  of  cases,  in  which  the  use  of  a  small  amount 
of  alcoholic  liquors  seems  beneficial,  or  at  any  rate  justifiable,  is  that 
in  which  there  is  a  deficiency  of  the  proper  sustenance,  so  that  the 
alcohol  supplies  the  means  of  maintaining  the  animal  heat,  for  which 
the  animal  tissues  would  otherwise  be  attacked.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, too,  the  temporary  elevation  of  the  habitually-depressed 
state  of  the  animal  power  seems  rather  beneficial  than  injurious. 
Of  this  we  have  a  remarkable  example  in  the  well-known  case  of 
the  Mutiny  of  the  Bounty ;  from  Captain  Bligh's  Narrative  of 
which  the  following  passages  are  extracted.  "  At  daybreak  I 
served  to  every  person  a  tea-spoonful  of  rum,  our  limbs  being  so 
much  cramped  that  we  could  scarcely  move  them."  Further  on — 
"  being  unusually  wet  and  cold,  I  served  to  the  people  a  tea-spoon- 
ful of  rum  each,  to  enable  them  to  bear  with  their  distressed  situa- 
tion." And  again, — u  our  situation  was  miserable;  always  wet,  and 
suffering  extreme  cold  in  the  night,  without  the  least  shelter  from 
the  weather.  The  little  rum  we  had  was  of  the  greatest  service ; 
when  our  nights  were  particularly  distressing,  I  generally  served  a 
tea-spoonful  or  two  to  each  person,  and  it  was  always  joyful  tidings 
when  they  heard  of  my  intention."  Now,  however  decidedly  we 
may  give  the  preference  to  hot  tea,  coffee,  or  cocoa,  with  plenty  of 
nourishing  food,  over  alcoholic  liquors,  in  facilitating  the  endurance 
of  such  an  exposure,  it  can  scarcely  be  questioned  that  in  circum- 
stances such  as  those  of  Captain  Bligh's  crew,  the  administration 
of  the  few  drops  of  spirit  was  of  the  most  important  service,  both 
as  supplying  combustible  material,  and  as  enabling  the  powers  of 
their  system,  already  seriously  depressed,  from  being  fatally  reduced 
by  the  privations  to  which  the  party  was  subjected. 

183.  The  beneficial  influence  of  a  small  quantity  of  Alcoholic 
stimulus,  in  contributing  to  the  endurance  of  bodily  labour  under 
circumstances  peculiarly  trying,  and  under  the  disadvantage  of  a 
deficient  allowance  of  animal  food,  has  been  demonstrated  on  an 
extensive  scale  by  the  hygienic  '  experience  of  the  large  prison  at 
Nismes,  called  the  "  Maison  Centrale,"  of  which  an  account  has 
been  recently  published  by  the  chief  physician,  M.  Boileau  Castel- 
nau,  who  has  been  connected  with  the  prison  for  the  last  twenty-five 
years.2  Of  this  account  an  abridgment  will  be  here  given,  as  the 

1  Hygienic  —  relating  t'  the  causes  by  which  the  health  of  the  system  i* 
maintained  and  improved 
9 See  the  Annale-  d' Hygiene  Publique,  Jan.  1849. 


INEXCEPTIONAL     CASE^S,  143 

facts  are  considered  by  the  writer  as  of  very  great  importance,  in 
disproving,  by  the  experience  of  a  large  number  of  individuals,  the 
position  of  those  who  assert  that  under  no  circumstances  can  the 
habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  be  otherwise  than  injurious.  This 
prison  usually  contains  a  population  of  1200  convicts,  most  of 
them  adults,  the  minimum  age  being  eleven.  Its  wards  have  been 
habitually  over-crowded  and  ill-ventilated,  and  insufficiently  heated 
in  winter ;  and  the  food  of  the  prisoners  has  been  coarse  and  in- 
nutritious,  whilst  more  labour  has  been  exacted  from  them  than 
their  strength  has  been  adequate  to  perform.  The  prisoners,  more- 
over, have  been  subjected  to  the  tyranny  of  brutal  keepers,  fre- 
quently loaded  with  irons,  and  occasionally  severely  whipped. 
Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  rate  of 
mortality  in  the  prison  has  been  always  high,  varying  from  1  in 
23 -88  to  1  in  7 '85,  whilst  the  average  rate  of  mortality  amongst 
the  inhabitants  of  the  town  of  Nismes,  of  the  same  age  and  sex, 
amounted  to  1  in  49  9.  The  rate  of  mortality  in  the  prison  un- 
derwent considerable  variations  in  different  years;  and  for  these 
variations  some  definite  cause  could  generally  be  assigned.  Thus 
the  winters  of  1828-9,  and  of  1829-30  were  unusually  severe 
and  prolonged;  and  the  rate  of  mortality  for  1829  was  1  in  940, 
whilst  for  1830  it  was  1  in  8'50;  clearly  proving  the  fatal  influence 
of  a  low  temperature  upon  systems  debilitated  by  insufficient  food, 
impure  air,  and  work  disproportioned  to  their  strength.  With  the 
exception  of  the  year  1833,  in  which  the  mortality  was  again  great, 
the  rate  was  much  less  for  several  subsequent  years,  varying  be- 
tween 1  in  11-35,  and  1  in  15  62 ;  but  in  1839  it  suddenly  rose 
from  1  in  12-32  to  1  in  7-85.  The  cause  of  this  terrible  augmen- 
tation (from  102  deaths  to  162)  seems  to  have  lain  in  a  ministerial 
ordinance  issued  on  the  10th  of  May,  1839,  limiting  the  alimentary 
articles  allowed  to  be  sold  at  the  canteen  to  potatoes,  cheese,  and 
butter.  Previously  to  that  time,  the  convicts  had  it  in  their  power 
to  lay  out  a  portion  of  their  earnings,  which  was  at  their  own  dis- 
posal, in  the  purchase  of  wine  and  tobacco,  in  addition  to  the 
articles  just  named;  but  these  were  now  prohibited. 

184.  "  In  order  fully  to  appreciate,"  says  Dr.  J.  Coxe  (by  whoiL 
this  case  is  cited  in  the  ninth  edition  of  Dr.  A.  Combe's  Physiology 
of  Digestion),  "  the  amount  of  misery  thus  entailed  upon  the 
prisoners,  the  reader  must  be  aware  that  in  the  south  of  France, 
wine  is  considered  an  absolute  necessary  of  life.  It  is  drunk  by 
the  poorest  of  the  people,  and  appears  essential  to  enable  them  to 
digest  their  coarse  unstimulating  food.  Within  the  town  of  Nismes, 
it  costs  about  a  penny  the  litre,  (If  pint);  and  without  the  wall, 
where  it  is  free  from  duty,  the  labourer  may  drink  it  at  a  penny 
the  hour.  Potatoes,  butter,  and  cheese,  could  not  replace  its  stim- 
ulus; and  besides,  the  south  of  France  containing  no  pastures,  the 


144  USE    OF    ALCOHOL 

butter  was  bad  and  dear;  and  the  cheese  also  dear.  Hence  the 
pittance  at  the  disposal  of  the  prisoners  was  more  than  ever  insuffi- 
cient to  supply  the  deficiency  of  nutriment." 

185.  The   rate  of  mortality  was  somewhat  diminished  in  the 
following  year,  the  diet  being  increased,  and  the  prisoners  receiving 
small  supplies  of  wine  and  tobacco  at  exorbitant  rates,  principally 
through  the  connivance  of  the  officials ;  still,  however,  it  remained 
very  high,  the  number  of  deaths  in  1840,  being  135  out  of  1216 
prisoners,  or  1  in  9-07.     Attention  being  now  attracted  to  the  con- 
dition of  the  prisoners,  an  attempt  was  made  to  ameliorate  it ;  the 
old  keepers  being  removed,  and  their  places  being  supplied  by  the 
"  Freres  des  ecoles  chretiennes,"  l  who  substituted  moral  persuasion 
for  physical  force  ;  and  the  diet  being  improved  both  in  quantity 
and    quality.     In   consequence    of  these    measures,  the  mortality 
again  began  to  diminish,  and  reached   its   lowest  point  in  1844, 
when  the  number  of  deaths  was  only  56  out  of  1290  prisoners,  or 
1  in  23-88.     The  "  Freres,"  however,  being  disgusted  at  the  con- 
tinual obstructions  which  their  measures  received,  gave   up  their 
charge;  the  old  system  of  hard  work  and  cruel  punishments  was 
again  introduced;  and  the  pittance  at  the  disposal  of  the  prisoners 
was  diminished    to    a   mere  fraction.     The   effect  of   this  change 
speedily  showed  itself  in  the  increased  mortality,  the  average  of 
deaths  progressively  increasing  in  the  years  1845,  1846  and  1847, 
to  1  in  19-63,  1  in  16-52,  and  1  in  13-57.     One  of  the  first  acts, 
however,  of  the  revolutionary  government  of  February,  1848,  was 
to  put  a  stop  to  the  system  of  convict-labour,  as  it  was  then  carried 
OQ,  and  flie  result  of  this  change  was  speedily  apparent  in  the  di- 
minished mortality;  for  whilst  the  number  of  deaths  during  the 
seven  months  ending  October  31st,  1847,  had  been  44,  only  16 
deaths  took  place  during  the  corresponding  months  of  1848. 

186.  Now  the  principal  lesson  taught  by  this  fearful  history,  is 
the  dependence  of  the  vital  powers  upon  food,  and  the  fatal  effects 
of  the  exaction  of  severe  labour  from  men  insufficiently  supplied 
with  aliment,  especially  when  they  are  subjected  to  the  additionally 
injurious  influences  of  a  low  temperature,  foul  air,  and   ill  treat- 
ment.     But  it  seems  obvious  from  the  large  increase  in  the  rate  of 
mortality  which  ensued  upon  the  prohibition  of  wine  —  no  extra- 
ordinary depression  of  temperature  having  existed  to  account  for  it, 
—  that  its  deprivation  exerted  a  positively  injurious  effect.     If  an 
adequate  measure  of  nutritious  food  had  been  supplied  in  its  stead, 
the  change  would  doubtless  have  been  for  the  better;  but  the  sup- 
port given  by  the  wine,  which  was  probably  too  weak  and   poor  to 
have  any  decided  stimulating  effect  in  moderate  quantities,  had  be- 

1  Frtres  des  ecoles  chretiennes  —  brothers  of  the  Christian  schools  —  a  re- 
Hgioua  order. 


IN     EXCEPTIONAL    CASES.  145 

come  so  necessary  to  the  debilitated  systems  of  these  men,  thai,  its 
withdrawal  was  fatal  to  many  among  them. 

187.  From  these  two  cases,  then,  and  from  others  which  might 
be  cited  to  the  same  effect,  we  seem  justified  in  concluding,  that  the 
use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  in  small  quantity  may  assist  in  sustaining 
the  powers  of  the  system,  when  these  have  undergone  an  extreme 
depression  from  the  combined  influence  of  exposure  or  exertion,  and 
of  want  of  food  j  so  that  under  such  circumstances  the  alcohol  does 
decidedly  more  good  than  harm,  and  should  therefore  be  employed 
when  accessible.     And  this  we  may  freely  admit,  without  having  in 
the  least  degree  to  qualify  the  doctrine  previously  advanced,  that 
continual  exposure  and  protracted  exertion  may  be  better  sustained 
without  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  than  with  it,  when  an  adequate 
supply  of  wholesome  food  is  to  be  had,  and  the  stomach  is  capable 
of  digesting  it. 

III. — DEFICIENCY   OF   CONSTITUTIONAL  VIGOUR. 

188.  We  have  now  to  inquire  into  the  third  class  of  cases,  in 
which  a  temporarily  beneficial  result  appears  to  be  derived  from  the 
occasional,  or  even  (for  a  time  at  least)  the  habitual  use  of  Alcoholic 
liquors  j  —  those,  namely,  in  which  there  is  a  want  of  sufficient 
vigour  on  the  part  of  the  system  itself,  to  digest  and  assimilate  the 
aliment  which  it  really  needs.     Such  cases  present  themselves  in 
all  ranks  of  life.     In  the  higher,  they  too  frequently  result  from 
heated  rooms  and  late  hours,  from  the  want  of  regular  exercise  of 
mind  and  body,  and  from  habits  of  self-indulgence  and  "  coddling/' 
which  foster,  especially  in  females,  what  may  have  been  an  heredi- 
tary weakness  of  digestive  power.     In  the  middle  classes,  it  is 
usually  traceable  to  the  "  wear  and  tear"  of  professional  or  com 
mercial  avocations ;    to  undue  cerebral  labour,  carried  on,  as  this 
frequently  is,  in  ill-ventilated  apartments;  and  to  the  anxieties  in 
cident  to  the  conscientious  discharge  of  the  duties  of  a  profession  or 
to  the  fluctuations  of  business.     Among  the  lower  classes,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  is  traceable  rather  to  the  condition  of  their  dwellings, 
workshops,  and  persons ;  to  the  want  of  ventilation  of  the  buildings 
in  which  they  dwell  or  labour ;  to  the  miasmatic  atmosphere  of  their 
ill-drained  streets,  and  to  the  foulness  of  their  skins  and  garments. 

189.  Now  in  the  first  of  these  groups,  it  is  obvious  that  the  want 
of  appetite  is  a  natural  result  of  the  reduction  of  demand  for  ali- 
ment to  its  lowest  point;  for  where  neither  the  muscular  nor  the 
nervous  systems  are  adequately  exercised,  and  where  the  body  is 
habitually  kept  in  a  temperature  not  far  below  its  own,  there  can 
be  very  little  "  waste"  to  be  repaired,  and  a  very  small  amount  of 
combustive  action  can  be  needed  to  keep  up  the  heat  of  the  body 
to  its  proper  standard.     But  the  digestive  powers  are  very  liable, 

13 


1 46  USE    OF    ALCOHOL 

when  their  natural  use  is  too  little  called  for,  to  sink  below  the  levej 
at  which  the  demands  of  the  system  should  keep  them  •  and  thus 
an  almost  total  want  of  appetite,  and  extreme  debility  of  the 
stomach,  are  the  result,  which  of  course  tends  to  augment  the  habits 
of  self-indulgence,  and  to  foster  the  whole  system  of  "coddling." 
In  such  cases,  an  apparent  benefit  is  derived  from  the  habitual  em- 
ployment of  a  glass  or  two  of  wine  or  a  tumbler  of  bitter  ale ;  but 
this  merely  facilitates  the  persistence  in  a  wrong  course ;  and  every 
judicious  practitioner  would  now  assent  to  the  truthfulness  of  the 
advice  given  by  Abernethy  in  a  case  of  this  kind,  to  "  live  on  a 
shilling  a  day  and  earn  it."  It  is  utterly  impossible  that  alcoholic 
liquors  can  counteract  the  influence  of  heated  rooms  and  late  hours ; 
that  they  can  stand  in  the  place  of  healthful  exercise  of  mind  and 
body ;  or  that  they  can  neutralize  the  evil  results  which  are  sure  to 
proceed  from  the  habitual  direction  of  the  attention  to  self.  All 
that  they  can  beneficially  do  is,  to  create  for  a  time  that  appetite 
which  ought  to  be  naturally  felt,  and  to  urge  the  unwilling  stomach 
to  digest  that  food  which  the  body  really  requires.  But  this  they 
can  only  effect  by  their  stimulating  properties ;  and  as  the  usual 
dose  almost  invariably  ceases  after  a  time  to  exert  its  original  influ- 
ence, it  requires  a  gradual  increase,  until  the  evil  effects  of  its  ha- 
bitual use  in  such  a  state  of  the  system  are  unmistakeably  mani- 
fested. 

190.  The  true  cure  for  conditions  of  this  kind  lies  in  such  an 
entire  change  of  habits,  as  shall  place  the  system  in  the  condition 
most  favourable  to  the  recovery  of  its  vigour,  or  to  the  acquirement 
of  that  which  it  has  never  enjoyed ; — the  substitution  of  fresh  air 
and  bracing  breezes,  for  heated  and  ill-ventilated  rooms ;  of  early 
and  regular  hours,  for  the  system  of  turning  night  into  day  and  day 
into  night ;  of  plain  but  wholesome  fare,  for  seasoned  dishes  and 
refined  cookery ;  of  the  use  of  even  a  weakly  pair  of  limbs,  for  that 
of  a  carriage  and  horses ;  and  of  labour  in  behalf  of  others,  for  the 
weariness  of  ennui  or  continual  thought  of  one's-self. 

191.  Nevertheless  it  may  happen  that  after  all  these  means  have 
had  a  fair  trial,  and  considerable  improvement  may  have  been  pro- 
duced, the  stomach  may  not  be  equal  to  its  work ;  and  this  is  liable 
to  be  the  case  more  particularly  with  those,  to  whom  weak  digestive 
powers  have  been  transmitted  from  their  parents  (generally  in  con- 
sequence of  their  own  unhealthful  habits),  or  in  whom  they  have 
been  fixed  (so  to  speak)  by  an  erroneous   system  of  bodily  and 
mental  training,  and  especially  by  the  habitual  use  of  stimulants 
during  childhood  and  youth.     In  such  cases  the  writer  believes  that 
the  habitual  use  of  a  small  quantity  of  alcoholic  stimulant,  espe- 
cially when  combined  with  a  bitter  tonic,  may  be  of  more  service 
than  any  other  form  of  medicine ;  and  if  care  be  taken  not  to  em- 
ploy it  to  such  an  extent  as  to  produce  an  artificial  appetite,  or  to 


IN    EXCEPTIONAL    CASES.  147 

force  the  stomach  to  digest  more  than  the  system  really  needs,  it 
does  not  appear  likely  to  have  the  same  permanently  injurious 
effects,  as  it  exerts  in  most  other  cases.  It  will  generally  be  found 
to  be  an  indication  of  its  beneficial  use,  that  the  dose  does  not  re- 
quire increase;  the  small  quantity  originally  taken,  continuing  to 
exert  its  good  effects;  and  this  benefit  will  be  more  likely  to  be 
persistent,  if  the  use  of  the  alcoholic  stimulant  be  intermitted, 
whenever  the  digestive  powers  seem  adequate  to  the  support  of  the 
gystem  without  it. 

192.  The  want  of  appetite  and  feebleness  of  digestive  power,  so 
common  among  individuals  in  the  middle  classes,  who  go  through 
an  undue  amount  of  cerebral  labour,  frequently  under  circumstances 
which  are  of  themselves  prejudicial  to  health,  has  been  already  ad- 
verted to  under  another  head  (§§  163,  164);  and  it  has  been  shown 
that  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  cannot  in  general  be  regarded  as 
likely  to  be  permanently  beneficial  in  such  a  condition,  although 
temporary  benefit  may  doubtless  be  derived  from  it.     It  is  impos- 
sible that  Alcohol  can  supply  the  place  of  mental  repose  to  the  man 
whose  intellect  is  over-tasked,  and  whose  anxieties  are  unduly  ex- 
cited for  himself  or  for  others;  or  that  it  can  be  an  efficient  substitute 
for  muscular  exercise  to  the  man  of  sedentary  habits,  DT  for  fresh 
air  to  him  who  is  habitually  exercising  his  brain  in  a  close  ill-venti- 
lated apartment.     All  that  it  can  do,  is,  as  in  the  former  case,  to 
restore  the  appetite  which  ought  to  be  felt,  and  to  force  the  di- 
gestive powers  to  the  discharge  of  the  duty  which  they  are  indis- 
posed to  perform  of  their  own  accord.     And  here,  too,  we  find  that 
when  stimulants  are  habitually  employed  for  such  a  purpose,  they 
gradually  lose  their  power;  and  the  wearied  stomach,  like  the  jaded 
roadster,  at  last  breaks  down,  under  the  combined  influence  of  the 
withdrawal  of  nervous  agency  consequent  upon  cerebral  exhaustion, 
and  of  the  depression  of  its  own  energies  consequent  upon  the  ha- 
bitual over-excitement  to  which  it  has  itself  been  subjected. 

193.  Here  then,  it  is  obvious,  that  the  use  of  Alcoholic  stimu- 
lants can  only  serve  as  a  palliative ;  and  that  the  true  remedy  can 
only  be  found  in  such  change  of  habits,  as  shall  bring  back  the 
system  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  natural  state.     The  intellectual 
labour  must  be   moderated;    the   mind    must  be  prevented   from 
dwelling  on  its  own  sources  of  anxiety,  by  the  healthful  influences 
of  social  and  domestic  intercourse,  of  variety  of  occupation,  and  of 
objects  that  shall  interest  without  exciting  it ;  and  the  body  must 
be  placed  by  regular  exercise,  fresh  air,  and  adequate  repose,  iu  the 
most  favourable  condition  for  the  endurance  of  mental  labour.    Such 
measures  steadily  pursued,  with  an  occasional  complete  intermission 
from  the  ordinary  occupations,  and  an  entire  change  of  scene  with 
the  accompaniment  of  fresh,  objects  of  interest  (for  ennui  is  to  be 
especially  avoided),  more  especially  when  a  bracing  air  and  aug- 


148  USE    OF    ALCOHOL 

merited  muscular  exercise  tend  still  further  to  the  bodily  invigora- 
tion,  will  usually  be  found  sufficient,  when  employed  in  time,  for 
sustaining  the  appetite  and  digestive  powers  under  that  amount  of 
mental  labour  to  which  the  system  is  really  equal;  and  recourse 
should  be  had  to  all  such  natural  means  of  procuring  and  sustaining 
the  vigour  of  health,  before  the  artificial  and  delusive  aid  of  alco- 
holic stimulants  is  invoked.  It  is,  indeed,  among  the  most  injurious 
results  of  their  habitual  use,  that  it  is  found  possible  through  their 
means  to  prolong  the  health-destroying  system;  and  thereby,  like 
the  trader  who  bolsters  up  his  failing  credit  with  accommodation- 
bills,  to  carry  onwards,  from  page  to  page  of  the  book  of  life,  a 
heavy  balance  which  must  be  accounted  for  at  some  subsequent 
period. 

194.  Still  the  writer  is  by  no  means  disposed  to  deny,  that  after 
all  other  practicable  means  have  been  taken  for  the  invigoration  of 
the  system,  the  habitual  use  of  a  small  or  moderate  quantity  of  Alco- 
holic liquors  may  be  found  beneficial  in  some  individuals  of  the 
class  referred  to;   enabling  them  to  digest  that  food  which  the 
system  really  needs,  and  thus  contributing  to  sustain  their  powers 
under  an  amount  of  exertion,  to  which  they  would  not  otherwise  be 
equal.     And  this  will  be  especially  the  case  (as  with  the  class  first 
treated  of),  where,  from  hereditary  predisposition,  or  the  habits  of 
early  life,  there  is  a  fixed  constitutional  debility  of  the  digestive 
powers.     In  such  instances,  the  stimulating  effects  of  the  alcohol  do 
not  manifest  themselves ;  it  is  no't  found  requisite  to  increase  the 
dose ;  and  the  practice  is  continued  with  apparent  benefit  through 
the  whole  of  life.     A  characteristic  example  of  the  results  of  expe- 
rience in  this  respect  is  afforded  by  the  case  of  the  late  Dr.  Joseph 
Clarke  of  Dublin,  who  lived  to  the  age  of  76  years,  and  who  dis- 
charged the  duties  of  a  laborious  profession,  with  scarcely  an  inter- 
mission to  the  end  of  his  life.1 

195.  The  craving  which  is  felt  for  Alcoholic  liquors  among  the 
classes  whose  labour  is  rather  physical  than  mental,  and  the  benefit 
which  in  many  cases  appears  to  be  derived  from  it,  proceeds  from  a 
different  cause.     Nothing  can  be  conceived  in  itself  more  likely  to 
whet  the  appetite  and  invigorate  the  digestive  powers,  than  regular 
but  not  excessive  muscular  toil,  with  that  moderate  occupation  of 
mind  which  the  execution  of  the  labour  involves ;  but  in  order  that 
this  may  exert  its  proper  effect,  it  must  be  carried  on  under  circum- 
stances otherwise  favourable  to  health,  and  more  especially  in  a  pure 
atmosphere  of  moderate  temperature.     If,  in  place  of  this,  the  air 
be  already  loaded  with  carbonic  acid,  an  obstruction  is  created  to 
the  unusually  rapid  exhalation  of  that  gas  which  muscular  exertion 

1  See  the  SKetch  of  Dr.  Clarke's  Life  and  Writings,  by  his  Nephew,  Dr. 
Collins,  p.  81. 


IN     EXCEPTIONAL    CASES.  149 

involves;  and  the  labour  cannot  be  borne  without  the  assistance  of 
stimulants.  And  if  the  atmosphere  of  the  dwelling  be  charged 
with  the  noxious  emanations  resulting  from  animal  or  vegetable 
putrefaction,  the  appetite  and  the  digestive  powers  fail,  the  aliment 
which  the  system  really  needs  for  the  regeneration  of  its  "wasted" 
material  is  no  longer  prepared  and  supplied  to  the  circulating  current, 
and  the  strength  consequently  flags.  Under  such  circumstance?, 
recourse  is  had  with  apparent  benefit  to  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors ; 
for  they  spur  on  the  stomach  to  its  work,  and  cause  it,  for  a  time  at 
least,  to  furnish  what  is  needed  for  the  maintenance  of  the  various 
functions  of  tLe  body ;  the  whole  train  of  which  depends,  more  or 
loss  directly,  upon  the  due  performance  of  the  digestive  operation. 

196.  Now,  it  is  a  remarkable  characteristic  of  this  condition,  that 
the  stimulus  which  was  at  first  found  sufficient  very  speedily  ceases 
to  produce  its  usual  effect ;  and  that  the  feeling  of  necessity  for  it 
increases,  the  more  it  is  used.     Of  this,  we  have  an  example,  — 
which,  though  an  extreme  case,  teaches  the  lesson  with  the  force 
that  extreme  cases  alone  can  do,  —  in  the  condition  of  the  journey- 
men Tailors  employed  in  the  large  London  workshops,  as  disclosed 
by  the  inquiries  whose  results  are  published  in  the  first  "  Sanitary 
.Report"  (1842).     The  heaUand  closeness  of  the  workshops  were 
stated  by  the  witnesses  to  be  such,  that  on  the  coldest  nights  of 
winter,  large  thick  tallow  candles  melted  and  fell  over  with  the  heat ; 
and  fresh  hands  from  the  country  fainted  away.     In  order  to  get  the 
strength  up  for  the  day's  work,  and  to  create  an  appetite  for  break- 
fast, it  was  customary  to  take  a  glass  of  gin  at  seven  o'clock  in  the 
morning;  and  this  was  repeated  three  or  four  times  in  the  subse- 
quent ten  hours.     Now  the  utter  inability  of  the  alcoholic  stimulus 
to  afford  more  than  a  temporary  power  of  endurance  under  such  a 
state  of  things,  and  the  cumulative  effect  of  the  noxious  atmosphere 
on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  habitual  use  of  spirits  on  the  other, 
are  fearfully  shown  in  the  excessive  mortality  among  this  class  of 
men,  especially  from  consumption  ;  their  average  age  not  being  above 
thirty-two,  and  a  man  of  fifty  being  considered  as  superannuated.1 

197.  Nothing  can  be  more  absurd,  then,  than  to  maintain  that 
any  real  benefit  is  derived  from  Alcoholic  liquors  in  such  cases,  oj 
that  it  can  in  the  least  degree  supply  the  place  of  pure  air,  or  enable 
the  body  to  resist  the  influence  of  excessive  heat.     Nor  can  it  be 
more   potent   in   preventing  the   morbific   influence    of  putresccnt 
miasmata;  nor  again,  can   it  make  up  for  the  want  of   personal 
cleanliness.     These  agencies  can  only  be  remedied  by  their  proper 
antagonistic  measures;  —  hot  and  foul  air  by  proper  ventilation; 

1  The  writer  has  been  informed  that  these  workshops  have  been  greatly 
improved  of  late  years,  especially  in  regard  to  ventilation ;  and  that  the 
craving  for  spirits,  on  the  part  of  those  employed  in  them,  has  graiualljf 
ceased  to  manifest  itself. 
13* 


150  USE    OF    ALCOHOL 

noxious  emanations  from  the  soil  by  efficient  sewerage ;  filthiness  of 
the  skin  and  garments  by  the  use  of  baths  and  wash-houses; — and 
if  they  be  allowed  to  continue,  they  must  exert  their  influence  on 
the  bodily  system,  all  the  alcohol  in  the  world  notwithstanding, 
When,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  removed,  —  the  artizan's  labour 
being  prosecuted  in  pure  air,  and  his  home  and  garments  being  kept 
clean  and  fresh,  so  that  his  skin  and  lungs  are  allowed  their  due 
exercise,  —  it  will  be  seldom,  if  ever,  that  anything  else  will  be 
required  to  sharpen  his  appetite,  and  invigorate  his  digestive  powers, 
for  the  consumption  of  as  much  food  as  his  system  may  require. 

198.  On  the  whole,  then,  we  may  conclude  that  in  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  cases  falling  under  one  or  other  of  the  above 
categories,  the  influence  of  the  habitual  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors, 
while  it  may  seem  temporarily  beneficial,  is  in  the  end  rather  per- 
nicious than  otherwise;  and  this  not  so  much  (in  the  cases  now 
under  consideration)  by  their  own  specific  effects  on  the  system,  as 
by  causing  the  individual  to  feel  less  need  of  the  very  change  which 
is  needed  for  the  restoration  of  the  body  to  its  wonted  vigour.  The 
insensibility  to  the  effects  of  various  morbific  causes,  which  the 
habitual  use  of  these  stimulants  induces,  and  the  toleration  of  them 
which  it  thus  permits,  may  be  regarded,  indeed,  as  one  of  its  most 
injurious  results.  Those  who  are  prevented  from  feeling  the  imme- 
diate consequences  of  their  improper  course,  flatter  themselves  that 
they  are  uninfluenced  by  them,  and  give  to  their  wine,  their  spirits, 
or  their  beer,  the  credit  of  the  escape.  But  this  is  far  from  being 
the  case.  The  enemy  is  only  baffled,  not  dispersed;  and  although 
he  lies  concealed  for  a  time,  he  only  waits  until  his  onslaught  may 
be  more  effectually  made.  Any  systematic  departure  from  the  laws 
of  health  —  all  experience  teaches  —  must  exert  its  influence  on  the 
system,  sooner  or  later ;  the  sooner  it  does  so,  the  more  readily  may 
the  mischief  usually  be  corrected ;  whilst  the  postponement  of  its 
effects  tends  to  render  the  process  of  cure  as  protracted  as  the 
operation  of  the  causes  has  been.  It  is  one  of  the  greatest  benefits 
of  the  abstinent  system,  then,  that  by  making  the  evils  of  such  a 
departure  less  endurable,  it  sooner  prompts  the  sufferer  to  seek  a 
remedy. 

198.  Pregnancy.  —  Among  the  modifications  of  the  bodily  con- 
dition, short  of  actual  disease,  in  which  the  occasional  and  even  the 
habitual  use  of  fermented  liquors  seems  desirable  in  some  instances, 
are  the  states  of  pregnancy  and  lactation.  The  state  of  pregnancy 
frequently  occasions  a  peculiar  irritability  of  the  stomach  (apparently 
of  a  purely  nervous  character),  which  indisposes  it  to  retain  the 
nutriment  really  required  by  the  system,  or  which  prevents  it  from 
properly  digesting  and  preparing  it  when  retained.  This  irritability 
if.  occasionally  so  aggravated,  as  to  become  the  subject  of  medical 


IN    EXCEPTIONAL    CASES.  151 

treatment :  and  the  most  powerful  sedative  medicines '  are  some- 
times required  to  subdue  it  sufficiently  for  the  retention  of  even 
small  quantities  of  food.  Sometimes  even  these  are  ineffectual ;  and 
more  relief  is  obtainable  from  small  quantities  of  wine,  frequently 
repeated,  than  from  an\>  ihing  else.  Dr.  Meigs  (of  Philadelphia) 
mentions  a  case  in  which  nothing  could  be  borne  but  champagne. 
In  milder  cases  of  the  same  kind,  it  often  happens  that  a  small 
quantity  of  fermented  liquor,  taken  with  the  principal  meal,-seema 
to  establish  a  tolerance  of  it  in  the  stomach,  and  to  promote  its 
digestion,  in  a  way  which  no  ordinary  sedative  or  tonic  medicine  can 
effect;  and  it  certainly  seems  a  less  evil  to  employ  this,  even  habit- 
ually, during  the  period  of  pregnancy,  than  to  allow  the  system, 
both  of  mother  and  foetus,  to  be  suffering  for  want  of  the  aliment 
which  this  condition  so  peculiarly  requires.  And  as  the  source  of 
irritation  is  temporary,  there  is  less  danger  than  in  other  circum- 
stances, lest  the  demand  should  be  rendered  permanent,  by  the 
habituation  of  the  stomach  to  the  stimulus. 

199.  But  the  evils  attending  its  habitual  use,  even. under  such 
circumstances,  can   only  be  reduced  to  their  minimum,   by  very 
careful  attention  to  all  the   other  conditions  favourable  to   health 
during  the  pregnant  state  —  especially  fresh  air,  moderate  exercise, 
early  hours,  adequate  repose,  and  the  avoidance   of  all  sources  of 
excitement ;  and  also  by  the  strict  limitation  of  the  quantity  of  the 
alcoholic  liquor  to  that  which   is  sufficient  to  produce  the  desired 
result.     The  writer  has  known  cases,  in  which,  under  such  watchful 
regulation,    great   benefit  appeared  to   be    derived  from    the  very 
moderate  use  of  alcoholic  liquors,  (especially  of  those  in  which  the 
bitter  and  sedative  properties  of  the  hop  are  combined)  without  any 
corresponding  disadvantage;  the  stomach  being  thereby  enabled, 
so  long  as  the  pregnant  state  lasted,  to  receive  and  digest  the  food 
which  the  system  really  needed ;  and   the  requirement  not  being 
felt  after  its  termination.     But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the 
habit  of  indulgence  in  fermented  liquors,  once  established,  is  often 
felt  by  females,  as  well  as  by  men,  to  be  very  difficult  of  relinquish- 
ment ;  and  where  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  individual  does 
not  possess  self-command  sufficient-  to  break  through  the  habit  at 
the  proper  time,  it  might  be  advisable  to  endeavour  to  substitute  a 
medicine  for  a  beverage,  giving  to  the  alcoholic  compound  such  a 
form  as  may  render  it  not  peculiarly  palatable  or  inviting. 

200.  Lactation. l  —  The  benefit  derivable  from  the  use  of  Alco- 
holic liquors  to  support  the  system  during  lactation,  is  more  doubt- 
ful.    Certainly  it  may  be  affirmed  that  in  every  case  in  which  the 

1  Sedative  medicines — medicines  which  reduce  the  vital  actions. 
9  Lactation  —  the  period  of  suckling;  the  nourishment  of  the  chid  fram 
its  mother's  breast. 


]{,2  USE    OF    ALCOHOL 

nppetite  is  gooa  and  the  general  system  healthy,  the  habitual  us" 
of  these  stimulants  is  no  more  called  for,  than  at  any  other  time ; 
and  that  they  are  likely  to  produce  the  same  injurious  effects,  as 
when  unnecessarily  given  under  ordinary  circumstances.  The 
regular  administration  of  alcohol,  with  the  professed  object  of  sup- 
porting the  system  under  the  demand  occasioned  by  the  flow  of 
milk,  is  "  a  mockery,  a  delusion,  and  a  snare."  For  alcohol  affords 
no  single  element  of  the  secretion  ;  and  is  much  more  likely  to 
impair  than  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  milk.  The  only  mode 
in  which  it  can  contribute,  even  indirectly,  to  increase  the  amount 
of  solid  aliment  which  the  secretion  may  contain,  is  by  affording  a 
supply  of  combustive  material,  the  consumption  of  which  may 
leave  more  oleaginous  and  saccharine  matter  to  pass  into  the  milk. 
But  where  the  appetite  already  prompts  to  the  wgestiou,  and  the 
stomach  is  equal  to  the  digestion,  of  an  adequate  amount  of  solid 
food,  no  such  benefit  can  be  looked  for;  and  although  it  cannot  be 
certainly  affirmed  that  the  character  of  the  milk  is  always  impaired 
by  the  habitual  use  of  moderate  quantities  of  alcoholic  liquors,  yet 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  such  is  usually  the  case.  For  it  is 
unquestionable  that  their  excessive  employment  is  highly  prejudicial 
to  the  quality  of  the  milk,  and  thereby  to  the  health  of  the  child  j 
having  a  special  tendency  to  occasion  derangements  of  the  digestive 
organs,  and  convulsive  complaints. 2  This,  indeed,  might  be  fully 
expected ;  since  all  that  we  know  of  the  mode  in  which  substances 
taken  into  the  blood  affect  the  mammary  secretion,  would  lead  us 
to  expect  that  alcohol,  if  introduced  into  the  circulation  more 
rapidly  than  it  can  be  consumed,  would  pass  into  the  milk,  and 
would  consequently  produce  the  same  effects  upon  the  child  as  if 
directly  given  to  it, — besides  deranging  by  its  presence,  the  act  of 
secretion  itself,  in  virtue  of  its  tendency  to  produce  coagulation  of 
albuminous  matters.  And  the  fact  that  multitudes  of  women  of 
good  constitutions,  whose  general  habits  are  conducive  to  health,  go 
through  the  period  of  lactation  without  any  feeling  of  debility,  — 
simply  finding  their  appetite  increased  during  its  continuance,  —  is 
a  sufficient  proof  that  this  condition  is  not  one,  which  in  itself 
occasions  a  demand  for  alcoholic  liquors. 

201.  But  there  are  cases  in  which,  notwithstanding  all  that  can 
bo  done  to  promote  the  general  health,  the  stomach  does  not  seem 
capable  of  retaining  and  digesting  the  requisite  amount  of  nutri- 
ment, except  under  the  artificial  assistance  afforded  by  Alcoholic 
liquors;  and  in  which  it  appears  more  desirable,  for  the  welfare 
alike  of  mother  and  child,  that  such  assistance  should  be  afforded, 
than  that  lactation  should  be  carried  on  without  it.  In  one  case  of 

•  Dr.  North  says  (Practical  Observations  on  the  Convulsions  of  Infants) 
that  he  nas  seen  these  almost  instantly  removed  by  the  transference  of  tli« 
child  to  a  temperate  woman. 


IN     EXCEPTIONAL     CASES.  153 

this  kind  that  fell  particularly  under  the  writer's  notice,  in  which 
the  mother  was  most  anxious  to  avoid  the  assistance  of  fermented 
liquors,  and  began  to  nurse  without  their  support,  the  milk  was 
obviously  too  poor  in  quality,  and  not  sufficient  in  quantity,  for  the 
nutrition  of  the  infant ;  and  the  use  of  a  single  glass  of  wine,  or  a 
tumbler  of  porter,  per  day,  was  followed  by  a  speedy  and  marked 
improvement  in  the  condition  of  both  mother  and  child ;  and  this 
small  allowance  did  not  require  to  be  increased  during  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  lactation,  and  was  relinquished  without  difficulty 
soon  after  the  weaning  of  the  infant.  In  such,  cases  the  alcoholic 
liquor  seems  to  have  no  other  operation,  than  that  of  enabling  the 
stomach  to  digest  the  amount  of  solid  aliment  required  by  the  sys- 
tem j  whilst  the  smallness  of  the  quantity  of  alcohol  introduced  at 
any  one  time,  prevents  it  from  either  itself  passing  into  the  milk, 
or  exerting  any  injurious  influence  on  the  secreting  process.  But 
it  may  be  questioned  whether  the  practice  is  in  the  end  desirable  j 
or  whether  it  is  not,  like  the  same  practice  under  other  circum- 
stances already  adverted  to,  really  detrimental,  by  causing  lactation 
to  be  persevered  in,  without  apparent  injury  at  the  time,  by  females 
whose  bodily  vigour  is  not  adequate  to  sustain  it.  Such  certainly 
appeared  to  be  the  case  in  the  instance  just  referred  to  j  for  the 
system  remained  in  a  very  depressed  state  for  some  time  after  the 
conclusion  of  the  first  lactation ;  and  on  subsequent  occasions  it  has 
been  found  absolutely  necessary  to  discontinue  nursing  at  a  very 
early  period  of  the  infant's  life,  owing  to  the  inadequacy  of  the 
milk  for  its  nutrition,  and  the  obvious  inability  of  the  mother  to 
bear  the  drain.  Hence  it  may  be  affirmed  with  tolerable  certainty, 
that  the  first  lactation,  although  not  prolonged  beyond  the  usual 
period,  and  although  apparently  well  sustained  by  the  mother,  waa 
really  injurious  to  her;  and  the  inability  to  furnish  what  was  re- 
quired, without  the  stimulus  of  alcoholic  liquors,  was  Nature's 
warning,  which  ought  not  to  have  been  disregarded. 

202.  Considering,  then,  that  lactation  (unlike  pregnancy)  may  be 
put  an  end  to  at  any  period,  should  it  prove  injurious  to  the  mother, 
the  writer  is  disposed  to  give  his  full  assent  to  the  dictum  of  Dr. 
Macnish;  that  "if  a  woman  cannot  afford  the  necessary  supply 
without  these  indulgences,  she  should  give  over  the  infant  to  some 
one  who  can,  and  drop  nursing  altogether." — "The  only  cases," 
continues  Dr.  M.,  "  in  which  a  moderate  portion  of  malt  liquor  is 
justifiable,  are  when  the  milk  is  deficient,  and  the  nurse  averse  or 
unable  to  put  another  in  her  place.  Here,  of  two  evils,  we  choose 
the  least,  and  rather  give  the  infant  milk  of  an  inferior  quality,  than 
endanger  its  health,  by  weaning  it  prematurely,  or  stinting  it  of  its 
accustomed  nourishment."  l  Now  upon  this  the  writer  would  remark, 

1  Anatomy  of  Drunkenness,  p.  301. 


154  USE    OF    ALCOHOL 

that  a  judicious  system  of  feeding,  gradually  introduced  from  a  very 
early  period  in  the  life  of  a  child,  will  generally  be  preferable  to  an 
imperfect  supply  of  poor  milk  from  the  mother;  l  and  that  if  the 
mother  be  so  foolish  as  to  persevere  in  nursing  her  infant,  when 
Nature  has  warned  her  of  her  incapacity  for  doing  so,  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  medical  man  to  set  before  her,  as  strongly  as  possible,  the 
risk — the  almost  absolute  certainty — of  future  prejudice  to  herself. 
The  evils  which  proceed  from  lactation,  protracted  beyond  the  ability 
of  the  system  to  sustain  it,  may  be  to  a  certain  degree  kept  in  check 
by  the  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants;  but  the  writer  is  convinced  from 
observation  of  the  above  and  similar  cases,  that  its  manifestation  is 
only  postponed.  Under  no  circumstances,  therefore,  can  he  consider 
that  the  habitual  or  even  occasional  use  of  alcoholic  liquors,  during 
lactation,  is  necessary  or  beneficial. 

Childhood. — It  has  been  maintained  by  some,  that  there  are  cer- 
tain states  of  the  constitution  in  childhood,  in  which  benefit  is  de- 
rived from  the  habitual  use  of  small  quantities  of  fermented  liquors; 
and  this  especially  in  those  who  inherit  the  scrofulous  diathesis,2  and 
in  whom  the  nutritive  functions  are  altogether  imperfectly  performed. 
Experience,  it  is  said,  demonstrates  the  benefit  which  is  derivable 
from  the  judicious  employment  of  stimulants,  in  exciting  the  diges- 
tive and  assimilative  processes  to  augmented  activity,  and  in  thus 
improving  the  general  tone  of  the  system.  It  is  not  denied  that 
temporary  benefit  may  be  derived  from  such  a  course;  but  this  will 
be  obtained  at  the  risk  of  prospective  evil,  extending  through  the 
whole  of  life.  For  if  the  habit  be  begun  thus  early,  it  will  seldom 
be  found  possible  to  discontinue  it ;  the  stomach  is  rendered  depen- 
dent upon  artificial  support ;  and  the  improvement  which  this  appears 
to  produce  will  probably  render  the  parent  less  anxious  to  avail  him- 
self of  other  means  of  invigorating  the  system,  and  of  promoting  a 
more  active  and  complete  performance  of  the  nutritive 'actions,  which 
are  more  permanent  in  their  character,  because  they  act  more  natu- 
rally on  the  system.  Every  measure  of  this  kind,  therefore, — such 
as  unlimited  exposure  to  fresh  air  (avoiding  damp  and  cold),  plenty 
of  exercise,  warm  but  not  too  impervious  clothing,  the  copious  use 
of  cold  water  with  the  addition  of  salt,  sea-baihing,  and  other  adju- 
ineiita,3 — ought  to  have  a  complete  trial,  before  recourse  be  had  to 
the  completely  artificial  support  yielded  by  alcoholic  liquors. 

204.  There  cannot  be  any  reasonable  doubt  that  the  habitual  use 
of  Alcoholic  liquors  by  children  in  average  health,  is  in  every  way 

1  The  author  has  found  in  his  own  experience,  that  good  Cow's  milk 
Bomewhat  diluted  with  water,  and  sweetened  with  a  small  quantity  of  sugar 
(so  as  to  be  brought  nearly  to  the  composition  of  Human  milk),  has  answered 
Kitremely  well  even  for  very  young  infants. 

3  Scrofulous  diathesis  —  constitutional  tendency  to  scrofula. 

*  Adjumenta — assisting  remedies. 


IN     EXCEPTIONAL     CASES.  155 

injurious.1  In  no  period  of  life  are  the  nutritive  functions  moro 
energetically  carried  on,  if  the  child  be  only  placed  in  circumstances 
favourable  to  health ;  and  at  no  period  of  life  is  there  such  a  dispo- 
sition to  take  just  that  amount  of  exercise  of  the  nervo-muscular 
apparatus  which  is  beneficial  to  the  system,  without  exceeding  it. 
The  motives  which  stimulate  the  adult  to  over-exertion  in  his  battle 
with  the  world,  do  not  operate  upon  the  child  :  unless  forced  by  the 
zeal  of  injudicious  instructors,  he  will  seldom  be  disposed  to  carry 
nis  mental  exertions  beyond  the  stage  at  which  they  may  be  best 
intermitted;  and  whilst  naturally  prone  to  muscular  exercise,  he 
readily  complains  of  fatigue,  and  is  indisposed  to  persevere  after  this 
warning  of  the  failure  of  his  powers.  The  chief  thing  to  be  watched 
for  and  avoided,  therefore,  is  the  excess  in  diet  to  which  children  are 
sometimes  prone,  more  especially  if  their  palates  be  tempted  by  arti- 
cles of  which  they  are  fond;  and  if  this  be  duly  restrained,  and 
every  natural  means  for  the  preservation  and  improvement  of  health 
be  judiciously  and  perseveringly  employed,  it  is  believed  by  the  writer 
that  more  good  will  in  the  end  be  done,  than  will  be  accomplished 
by  the  assistance  of  alcoholic  liquors.  And  in  support  of  this  belief, 
he  can  appeal  to  the  large  numbers  of  families  now  growing  up  in 
this  country  and  in  America,  in  the  enjoyment  of  vigorous  health, 
among  whom  no  alcoholic  liquor  is  ever  consumed;  and  he  can 
point  to  numerous  cases  within  his  personal  knowledge,  in  which  the 
apparent  debility  of  constitution  having  been  such,  as  in  the  opinion 
of  some  to  call  for  the  assistance  of  fermented  liquors,  the  advice  was 
resisted,  and  those  other  means  adopted  which  have  been  already 
adverted  to,  with  the  effect  of  rearing  to  vigour  and  endurance,  chil- 
dren that  originally  appeared  very  unlikely  to  possess  either. 

205.  Old  Age. — It  has  been  maintained  again,  by  some  of  those 
who  fully  admit  the  undesirableness  of  the  habitual  use  of  Alco- 
holic liquors  during  the  vigour  of  early  and  middle  life,  that  they 
are  requisite  or  useful  for  the  support  of  old  age.  Now  upon  this 
point,  also,  the  writer  believes  that  much  misconception  is  preva- 

1  In  illustration  of  the  injurious  effects  of  the  habitual  use  of  fermented 
liquors  upon  healthy  children,  Dr.  Macnish  (Anatomy  of  Drunkenness, 
p.  302,)  relates  the  following  experiment  made  by  Dr.  Hunter  upon  two 
of  his  children,  both  of  them  having  been  previously  unused  to  wine.  To 
one,  a  child  of  five  years  of  age,  he  gave  every  day  a  full  glass  of  sherry ; 
to  the  other,  a  child  of  nearly  the  same  age,  he  gave  an  orange.  In  the 
course  of  a  week,  a  very  marked  difference  was  perceptible  in  the  pulse, 
urine,  and  evacuations  from  the  bowels  of  the  two  children.  The  pulse  of 
the  first  child  was  raised,  the  urine  high  coloured,  and  the  evacuations  des- 
titute of  their  usual  quantity  of  bile.  In  the  other  child,  no  change  vhat 
ever  was  produced.  He  then  reversed  the  experiment ;  giving  to  the  nrst 
the  orange,  and  to  the  second  the  wine,  and  the  results  corresponded :  the 
child  who  had  the  orange  continued  well,  and  the  system  of  the  other  jto* 
ptraight^ay  into  disorder  as  in  the  first  experiment. 


156  USE    OF    ALCOHOL 

lent,  arising  out  of  a  disregard  to  the  dictates  of  Nature  on  tho 
subject.  During  the  most  active  period  of  life,  the  lt  waste"  of  tho 
body  is  considerable ;  and  the  demand  for  food,  and  the  power  of 
digesting  it,  are  both  adequate  (in  the  healthy  state)  to  supply  that 
waste.  But  with  the  advance  of  years,  the  power  of  activity 
diminishes;  the  body  (so  to  speak)  lives  much  more  slowly,  as  is 
proved  by  the  lessened  exhalation  of  carbonic  acid  and  the  dimin- 
ished excretion  of  urea ;  and  the  waste  being  thus  lessened,  the 
demand  for  food,  and  the  power  of  digesting  it,  are  proportionably 
diminished.  Now  this  abatement  of  the  a'ppetite  and  digestive 
power  (like  that  which  is  felt  by  those  who  go  from  cold  or  tem- 
perate climates  to  reside  in  tropical  regions)  is  a  natural  warning 
that  a  smaller  amount  of  food  should  be  taken  in ;  and  if  it  be  so 
received,  and  no  more  nutriment  be  habitually  ingested  than  the 
appetite  legitimately  prompts,  the  digestive  powers  will  be  found  as 
adequate  as  in  a  state  of  greater  activity,  to  provide  for  the  wants 
of  the  system.  But  this  abatement  is  very  commonly  regarded  as 
an  indication  of  the  failure  of  the  powers  of  the  stomach;  and  re- 
course is  had  to  alcoholic  liquors  with  the  view  of  re-exciting  these. 
Now  although  from  such  a  practice,  when  very  moderately  resorted 
to,  less  prospective  evil  may  be  anticipated,  as  regards  merely  the 
effects  of  the  continual  ingestion  of  alcohol  upon  the  stomach,  than 
it  is  liable  to  occasion  when  commenced  earlier  in  life;  yet  it  is  very 
much  to  be  deprecated  on  another  account,  —  namely,  that  it  forces 
admission  into  the  system  (so  to  speak)  for  a  larger  amount  of  ali- 
mentary matter  than  it  can  appropriate;  and  as  all  the  organs  which 
are  set  apart  for  the  elimination  of  the  superfluity  (the  kidneys,  the 
liver,  the  skin,  and  the  glandules  of  the  intestinal  canal,)  are  less 
easily  stimulated  to  increased  activity  in  the  decline  of  life  than  at 
an  earlier  period,  it  follows  that  habitual  excess  in  diet,  even  though 
to  no  great  amount,  is  yet  more  likely  to  be  followed  by  the  disor- 
ders which  it  tends  to  produce.  And  hence  it  is,  more  especially, 
that  we  find  the  lithic  acid  diathesis  l  so  prone  to  manifest  itself  in 
advanced  life,  and  requiring  such  careful  dietetic  management  for 
its  correction. 

2o6.  The  author  would  not  take  upon  him  to  deny  that  cases  may 
present  themselves,  in  which  the  habitual  use  of  a  small  quantity 
of  Alcoholic  liquors  may  be  beneficial  to  persons  advanced  in  life 
and  not  suffering  under  any  positive  ailment,  but  experiencing  abso- 
lute deficiency  of  digestive  power  beyond  that  which  is  in  conformity ' 
with  the  general  decline  of  activity;  in  such  cases,  the  benefit  to  be 
expected  from  their  employment  is,  that  the  stomach  should  be  as- 
sisted in  the  digestion  of  the  food  which  the  system  really  requires ; 

1  Lilhic.  acid  diathesis  —  constitutional  tendency  to  the  formation  of  lithio 
iicid,  giving  rise  to  stone  m  the  bladder. 


IN    EXCEPTIONAL    CASES  157 

and  in  so  far  as  their  use  is  carried  beyond  that  point,  it  is  hurtful 
in  every  way.  Such  cases  may  be  expected  to  be  rare  among  those 
.who  have  habitually  observed  the  lavrs  of  health,  and  who  have  not 
prematurely  exhausted  the  powers  of  their  digestive  apparatus,  by 
habitual  excess  in  diet  or  in  mental  labour,  or  by  the  continual  use 
of  stimulants.  Those,  on  the  other  hand,  who  have  adopted  the 
habit,  early  in  life,  of  relying  upon  the  aid  of  alcoholic  liquors,  for 
the  performance  of  the  digestive  operation ;  or  who  have  overtasked 
their  nervous  systems,  and  thus  deprived  the  stomach  of  the  nervous 
power  which  it  requires;  or  who  have  impaired  their  vigour  by 
breathing  a  foul  atmosphere,  by  irregularity  and  insufficiency  in  re- 
gard to  the  periods  of  repose,  or  by  various  other  departures  from 
the  ordinances  of  Nature ;  are  more  likely  to  suffer  in  advanced  life 
from  a  loss  of  digestive  power,  which  no  treatment,  medical  or 
hygienic,  can  ever  completely  repair. 

207.  But  here,  as  in  all  other  instances,  if  the  prolongation  of 
life  and  the  restoration  of  vigour  be  the  paramount  objects  of  con- 
sideration, recourse  should  at  first  be  had  to  all  those  measures  of 
general  Hygiene,1  which  prudential  experience  would  recommend; 
and  the  assistance  of  Alcoholic  liquors  should  be  avoided,  with  a 
jealous  apprehension  of  their  prospective  evils,  until  it  shall  appear 
that  no  other  more  natural  means  can  bring  about  the  desired  result. 
Those  who  have  been  in  the  habit  of  employing  them  during  the 
whole  of  life,  are  certainly  those  who  are  least  likely  to  feel  able  to 
dispense  with  them  in  old  age;  yet  experience  has  demonstrated 
even  here,  that  where  the  evil  results  of  their  continued  use  have 
begun  to  manifest  themselves,  decided  and  permanent  benefit  has 
followed  their  abandonment;  and  where  it  was  believed  by  the  indi- 
vidual that  he  could  not  possibly  dispense  with  their  use,  the  sto- 
mach has  recovered  its  healthy  tone  (especially  under  the  copious 
external  and  internal  use  of  cold  water,  and  the  influence  of  an  in- 
vigorating atmosphere),  so  as  to  be  able  to  discharge  its  duties  for 
the  remainder  of  life  with  greater  ease  than  it  ever  previously  had 
done.* 

208.  For  the  results  of  experience  on  this  and  other  points,  any 
statements  of  which  should  be  based  rather  on  a  wide  and  general 
survey,  than  on  induction  from  a  comparatively  limited  number  of 
instances,  the  author  has  thought  it  safest  to  rely  on  the  assurances 
of  medical  practitioners  in  the  New  England  States;  since  the  en- 
tire disuse  of  fermented  liquors  has  been  now  practised  as  a  habit 
for  some  years,  by  a  large  proportion  of  the  population  of  those 
States,  including  those  who  are  most  subject  to  those  influences  (the 

1  Hygiene  —  the  art  of  maintaining  and  improving  health. 
3  For  two  remarkable  cases  of  this  kind,  see  Appendix  C. 
14 


158  USE    OF    ALCOHOL 

"  wear  and  tear"  of  social  life)  which  are  usually  regarded  as  most 
powerfully  conspiring  to  render  the  assistance  of  stimulants  desira- 
ble.—  The  following  statements  on  this  subject  have  been  recently 
put  forth  by  the  Massachusetts  Temperance  Society,  under  the  sanc- 
tion of  their  distinguished  President,  Dr.  Warren.1 

209.  "  In  regard  to  the  habitual  use  of  wine,  it  is  probable  that 
the  change  of  opinion  is  greater  here  than  in  Europe.     A  vast  num- 
ber of  persons  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  have  wholly  abandoned 
the  use  of  wine,  cider,  and  malt  liquors;  and  many  of  those  who 
continue  to  employ  them  have   greatly  diminished   the  quantity. 
Wine  is  no  longer  thought  necessary  in  the  convalescent  stage  of 
fever.      Cider,  formerly  one  of  the  household  provisions  of  almost 
every  family  in  the  North,  is  rarely  seen;  and  the  very  trees  which 
produced  it  are  either  cut  down  for  fuel,  or  converted  to  the  produc- 
tion of  fruits  for  food.    The  stronger  beers  are  quite  disused,  except 
among  emigrants ;  and  even  the  milder  are  employed  only  in  some 
very  light  and  unstimulating  form  to  allay  thirst,  principally  in  the 
hot  season."     "  The  apprehension  that  a  sudden  disuse  of  fermented 
liquors  might  be  injurious,  has  been  dispelled  by  a  vast  number  of 
cases,  in  which,  after  long-continued  employment,  a  sudden  and  total 
abandonment  has  taken  place,  not  only  without  impairing  health 
and  comfort,  but  with  positive  improvement  in  strength,  activity, 
and  agreeable  sensations.     How  common  is  it  amongst  us  to  see 
persons  who  in  former  times  used  wine  freely,  and  who  have  now 
given  it  up,  present  an  appearance  of  mental  and  bodily  vigour  they 
had  not  exhibited  before.     The  influence  of  such  a  change  of  habit 
in  the  wealthier  classes  has  been  great  beyond  calculation,  in  leading 
the  mass  of  society  to  abandon  the  use  of  spirits,  and  to  repeat  an 
experiment  already  made  by  those  whom  they  are  accustomed  to 
respect  and  follow.     Such  having  been  the  consequences  of  the 
disuse  of  wine,  how  desirable  is  it  that  all  those  who  have  not  aban- 
doned it,  who  wish  well  to  their  fellow-men,  and  are  willing  to  show 
that  they  are  capable  of  making  the  sacrifice  they  advise,  should 
submit  to  a  privation  which  they  have  sufficient  reason  to  believe 
will  be  most  salutary  to  themselves  and  others." 

210.  The  extent  of  change  of  habit,  in  this  respect,  among  tho 
middle  and  higher  classes  of  society  in  Boston,  and  other  great 
towns  of  New  England,  may  be  judged  of  from  the  fact,  that  many 
of  those   public   festivities,  at  which  the  assistance    of  alcoholic 
liquors  is  considered  indispensable  in  this  country,  are  there  con- 
ducted without  any  such  artificial  excitement.     "  Of  late  years " 
(we  quote  the  same  authority)  u  we   have  had  the  gratification  of 
witnessing  so  many  exceptions  to  the  former  practice,  that  it  appears 

1  Preface  to  the  Reprint  of  an  Essay  on  the  Physiological  effects  of  Al- 
coholiu  Druks,  from  Dr.  Forbes's  Review,  Boston,  N.  E.  1848. 


IN     EXCEPTIONAL    CASES.  159 

very  probable  that  the  rule  will  be  reversed,  and  the  exceptions 
change  to  the  opposite  side.  The  great  festivals  on  the  Anniversary 
of  National  Indepcndenceare  in  many  places  celebrated  without  other 
stimulus  than  that  of  patriotic  feeling.  The  annual  ceremonies  of 
our  literary  institutions,  too  often  stained  by  lavish  draughts  of  the 
juice  of  the  grape,  are  now  purified  by  the  effusions  of  chastened 
wit,  and  elevated  by  the  nights  of  an  unclouded  imagination.  Most 
of  the  Universities,  and  particularly  the  oldest,  and  we  may  perhaps 
venture  to  say  the  most  distinguished,  have  unshackled  themselves 
from  the  chains  of  ancient  habit.  Under  the  influence  of  a  master- 
spirit (President  Everett)  the  great  annual  festival  of  Commence- 
ment at  Cambridge  University  has  been  accomplished  without  the 
aid  of  wine ;  and  the  oldest  of  our  literary  fraternities,  the  Phi  Beta 
Kappa  Society,  has  enjoyed  the  excitement  of  a  social  meeting 
without  the  consequent  depression  from  artificial  stimulus.  Wine  is 
no  longer  admitted  at  the  yearly  convocation  of  the  Clergy,  or  the 
assemblage  of  the  Medical  profession  of  this  State.  The  great 
association  of  mechanics  of  the  metropolis  hold  a  brilliant  triennial 
feast,  from  which  every  kind  of  alcoholic,  fermented,  vinous,  and 
other  stimulating  liquid  is  wholly  excluded."  ' 

211.  On  the  whole,  then,  the  writer  thinks  that  Physiology  and 
Experience  alike  sanction  the  conclusion,  that  although  there  are 
states  of  the  stomach,  in  which  the  diminished  appetite  and  digestive 
power  prevent  the  reception  of  an  adequate  supply  of  aliment  into 
the  system,  and  in  which  the  assistance  of  alcoholic  liquors  is  tem- 
porarily beneficial,  that  assistance  is  rather  a  palliative,  than  a  cure 
of  the  condition  which  calls  for  it ;  and,  if  perseveringly  had  recourse 
to,  is  likely  to  induce  a  train  of  evils  of  its  own :  whilst,  at  the  same 
time,  by  the  apparent  support  which  it  gives,  and  by  rendering  the 
system  more  tolerant  of  the  unfavourable  influences  from  which  its 
depression  of  power  may  have  proceeded,  it  renders  the  individual 
less  disposed  to  seek,  in  a  change  of  habit,  the  remedies  which  will 
be  really  effectual.  "  Thus/'  as  an  American  physician  has  remarked 
to  the  writer,  ll  where  you  (the  English  practitioner)  recommend  to 
a  man  losing  his  digestive  power  from  the  fatigue  and  confinement 
of  a  city  life,  to  take  wine,  porter,  or  bitter  ale  with  his  dinner,  we 

1  In  order  to  give  a  more  exact  idea  of  the  importance  of  the  celebrations 
alluded  to  above,  we  have  thought  it  well  to  state  the  number  of  persona 
that  attended  them,  as  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained. 

Fourth  of  July  Celebration  in  Faneuil  Hall 1000 

Commencement  at  Cambridge  University 300 

Festival  of  Thi  Beta  Kappa 150 

Festival  of  the  Clergy 200 

Festival  of  the  Massachusetts  Medical  Society .' 300 

Festival  of  the  Massachusetts  Mechanics'  Association 600 


160  USE    OF    ALCOHOL 

order  him  out  of  town,  to  get  fresh  air,  and  the  refreshment  of  idle 
ness  in  the  country."  No  man  of  observation  can  doubt  which  of 
these  two  systems  is  likely  to  be  most  beneficial  in  the  long  run. 

212.  But,  again,  the  writer  believes  that  there  are  exceptional 
cases,  arising  chiefly  from  peculiarity  of  original  constitution,  in 
which  the  want  of  digestive  power  is  more  completely  and  perma- 
nently supplied  by  the  habitual  use  of  a  small  quantity  of  Alcoholic 
liquors,  than  it  can  be  by  any  other  means  within  the  power  of  the 
individual.  It  may  be  impossible  to  predicate  in  any  individual 
instance,  whether  this  shall  be  the  case  or  not;  but  the  results  of 
observation  appear  sufficient  to  prove,  that  it  would  be  erroneous  to 
assert  dogmatically  that  it  never  can  be.  Still,  the  evils  resulting 
from  the  unnecessary  employment  of  stimulants  are  so  great,  that 
recourse  should  never  be  had  to  them,  until  every  other  more  natural 
method  of  sustaining  the  vital  powers  has  been  tried  without  success; 
they  should  never  be  employed  to  replace  any  hygienic  requirement, 
such  as  fresh  air,  mental  repose,  muscular  exercise,  &c. ;  and  they 
should  be  disused  whenever  it  may  appear  that  the  necessity  for 
them  no  longer  exists. 


IN     THE    TREATMENT     OF    DISEASE.  16J 


CHAPTER   IY. 

b  THE  EMPLOYMENT  OF  ALCOHOLIC  LIQUORS  NECESSARY  IN 
THE  PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE  ?  IF  SO,  IN  WHAT  DISEASES,  OR 
IN  WHAT  FORMS  AND  STAGES  OF  DISEASE,  IS  THE  USE  OF 
THEM  NECESSARY  OR  BENEFICIAL? 

213.  Those  who  maintain  that  Alcoholic  liquors  are  not  requisite 
for  the  ordinary  sustenance  of  Man,  or  even  that  they  are  likely  to 
be  rather  prejudicial  than  otherwise  when  habitually  taken  in  small 
quantities,  —  that,  in  fact,  Alcohol  is  to  almost  every  one  a  true 
poison,  slower  or  more  rapid  in  its  operation,  according  to  the  rate 
at  which  it  is  taken, — may  still  maintain  with  perfect  consistency, 
that  (like  many  other  poisons)  it  may  be  a  most  valuable  remedy, 
when  administered  with  caution  and  discrimination,  in  various  forms 
of  disease.  In  replying  to  the  above  question,  we  shall  first  look 
at  the  inferences  which  we  may  draw  from  the  physiological  action 
of  Alcohol,  in  regard  to  the  conditions  of  the  system  in  which  it  is 
most  likely  to  be  useful. 

I.  —  RECOVERY    FROM    SHOCK. 

213.  We  have  seen  that  Alcohol,  when  introduced  into  the  cir- 
culation, acts  as  a  stimulant  in  augmenting  the  force  and  rapidity 
of  the  heart's  contractions,  and  that  it  also  increases  the  excitability 
of  the  nervous  system ;  we  have  found,  moreover,  that  it  supplies 
the  means  of  keeping  up  the  Animal  Heat,  which  may  be  advan- 
tageously employed  when  other  means  are  deficient.  Hence  we 
should  say  that  alcoholic  liquors  may  be  advantageously  employed 
to  assist  in  rousing  the  system  from  the  effects  of  agencies  of  vari- 
ous kinds,  which  threaten  for  a  time  to  produce  a  fatal  depression 
of  the  vital  powers; — such,  for  example,  as  severe  injuries  that  pro- 
duce a  violent  shock,  under  the  primary  effect  of  which  the  system 
appears  likely  to  sink.  But  great  caution  must  be  used  in  their 
administration,  and  they  should  not  be  given  unless  there  appears 
to  be  a  positive  necessity  for  doing  so,  (i.  e.  unless  the  patient  ap- 
pears likely  to  sink  without  them) ;  for  it  is  as  certain  that  re-ac- 
tionary  excitement  will  follow  a  primary  depression,  as  it  is  that 
depression  will  be  subsequent  upon  primary  excitement;  and  if 
stimulants  have  been  unnecessarily  employed,  the  difficulty  of  con- 
trolling the  re-action  will  be  increased.  This  caution  is  more  espe- 
cially necessary,  where  the  brain  is  the  part  to  which  the  injury 
has  occurred,  since  the  special  determination  of  alcohol  to  »ihiy 
14* 


162  USE     OF    ALCOHOL 

organ  will  increase  the  violence  of  the  re-action  in  a  most  dangerous 
manner. 

214.  There  is  no  class  of  cases,  perhaps,  in  which  the  good  effects 
of  stimulants  in  maintaining  the  heart's  action,  and  in  keeping  up 
the  nervous  excitability,  are  more  manifest,  than  in  those  severe 
and  extensive  burns  of  the  trunk  of  the  body,  to  which  the  chil- 
dren of  the  lower  classes  are  peculiarly  liable,  from  their  clothes 
taking  fire  through  carelessness  or  negligence.  The  shock  given  by 
this  injury  to  the  delicate  and  impressible  system  of  the  child  is 
often  rapidly  fatal ;  the  heart's  action  being  extremely  depressed, 
the  nervous  power  reduced,  and  the  body  gradually  cooling,  until 
its  temperature  falls  to  a  degree  incompatible  with  the  maintenance 
of  life.  The  writer  has  witnessed  many  such  cases,  in  which  life 
seemed  to  be  kept  in  the  body  by  the  frequent  administration  of  a 
spoonful  of  cordial,  but  in  which  death  supervened  upon  a  short 
intermission  of  the  stimulus, — the  nurses  in  Hospitals  being  gene- 
rally possessed  with  the  belief  that  the*little  patients  must  die,  and 
being  too  frequently  careless  in  the  employment  of  the  only  means 
by  which  life  can  be  sustained. 


II.  —  TREATMENT   OP   ACUTE   DISEASES. 

215.  Resistance  to  the  depressing  influence  of  Morbific  Agents.1 
— In  the  class  of  cases  to  which  reference  has  just  been  made,  the 
shock  is  temporary;  and  if  the  patient  can  be  kept  alive  until  the 
system  has  recovered  from  its  immediate  consequences,  a  great  point 
is  gained.  There  is  another  class  of  cases,  in  which  the  depression 
is  produced  by  a  morbific  agency,  and  in  which  it  is  of  equal  im- 
portance to  keep  up  the  vital  powers  for  a  time ;  since,  if  they  can 
be  sustained  for  a  few  hours  or  days,  the  patient  has  a  fair  chance 
for  recovery.  Of  such  we  have  examples  in  many  forms  of  Fever; 
especially  in  those  which  run  a  tolerably  determinate  course,  and 
which  exert  their  noxious  influence  rather  in  producing  a  general 
depression  of  the  vital  powers,  than  in  occasioning  any  decided 
local  lesion.  No  two  epidemics  of  fever  are  precisely  alike ;  and 
the  treatment  which  is  of  service  in  one  may  be  found  injurious  in 
the  other,  notwithstanding  that  the  general  type  may  be  the  same- 
A  severe  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever,  which  the  writer  witnessed  in 
Edinburgh  in  the  years  1836—7,  afforded  him  an  opportunity  of 
seeing  the  decided  efficacy  of  Alcoholic  stimulants  in  one  form  at 
least  of  this  fever;  the  opposite  methods  of  treatment,  followed  by 
two  physicians  whose  practice  he  watched,  being  attended  with  such 
different  results,  that  as  the  cases  were  of  the  same  class,  and  the 
Dther  conditions  identical,  there  was  no  other  way  of  accounting  for 

*  Morbific  agents  —  disease-producing  agents. 


IN     THE    TREATMENT    OF    DISEASE.  163 

the  difference.  By  neither  physician  were  any  active  measures 
taken  during  the  early  stages  of  the  fever,  for  none  seemed  called 
for ;  but  in  one  set  of  cases,  the  same  expectant  practice  was  con- 
tinued to  the  end  j  whilst  in  the  other,  the  administration  of  wine 
and  spirit  was  commenced,  as  soon  as  the  weakness  of  the  pulse, 
and  the  coldness  of  the  extremities,  indicated  the  incipient  failure 
of  the  circulating  and  calorifying  powers.1  The  quantity  was  in« 
creased  as  the  necessities  of  the  patient  seemed  to  require ;  and  in 
one  case  (that  of  a  woman  whose  habits  had  been  previously  intem- 
perate, and  on  whom  a  more  potent  stimulus  was  therefore  needed 
to  make  an  impression,)  a  bottle  of  sherry  with  twelve  ounces  of 
whiskey  was  the  daily  allowance  for  a  week  or  more, — the  patient 
ultimately  recovering.  Now  the  result  of  this  wine-treatment  was, 
that  the  mortality  was  not  above  a  third  of  that  of  the  simple  ex- 
pectant treatment;  the  patients  dying  under  the  latter  from  actual 
exhaustion  and  failure  of  calorifying  power,  and  no  local  lesion2 
being  detectible  on  post-mortem  examination. 

216.  It  is  by  no  means  difficult  to  give  a  satisfactory  rationale* 
of  this  beneficial  action.  The  immediate  cause  of  death  in  such 
cases  appears  to  be  a  failure  of  the  power  of  the  heart,  the  contrac- 
tions of  which,  in  the  advanced  stage  of  typhus  and  typhoid  fevers, 
become  progressively  feebler  and  more  rapid ;  and  it  has  been, 
noticed  by  Drs.  Stokes  and  Graves,  as  the  best  indication  for  the 
use  of  wine,  that  the  impulse  is  greatly  diminished,  and  that  the 
first  sound  becomes  very  feeble  or  is  entirely  extinguished.  Now 
the  effect  of  wine,  where  it  acts  beneficially,  is  to  render  the  heart's 
action  more  vigorous  and  at  the  same  time  slower.  Again,  with  this 
state  of  the  circulation  we  generally  have  a  low  muttering  and  rest- 
less delirium,  with  an  approach  to  subsultus  tendinurn;4  and  if  the 
wine  acts  beneficially,  it  renders  the  patient  more  tranquil  and  dis- 
poses him  to  sleep.  Under  the  influence  of  wine,  too,  in  suitable 
cases,  the  skin  and  tongue  become  moister,  and  the  breathing  more 
deep  and  slow ;  but  if  the  wine  be  acting  injuriously,  the  skin  and 
tongue  become  drier,  and  the  respiratory  movements  more  hurried. 
Concurrently  with  the  failure  of  the  heart's  action,  there  seems  often 
to  be  a  deficiency  of  heat-producing  material ;  all  that  was  previously 
contained  in  the  body  having  been  burned-off  during  the  earlier 
period  of  the  fever ;  and  little  or  none  having  been  taken  in  from 
without.  Day  by  day,  the  fatty  matter  of  the  body  is  used  up  by 
the  respiratory  process;  and  thus,  as  in  cases  of  simple  starvation, 
the  patient  must  die  of  cold,  unless  some  means  be  provided  for  the 

^  Calorifying  powers  —  heat-producing  powers. 

Lesion  —  change  of  structure  or  condition  produced  by  disease. 
s  Rationale  —  explanation. 
4  Subsultus  tendinum  —  starting  or  spasmodic  twitches  of  the  tendons 


164  USE     OF    ALCOHOL 

sustenance  of  the  heat.  In  such  a  condition  of  the  system,  no  fari- 
naceous or  oleaginous  matters  could  be  digested  or  absorbed  in  suffi- 
cient quantity ;  whereas  alcohol  is  taken  into  the  current  of  the  cir- 
culation by  simple  endosmose,1  without  any  preparation  whatever, 
and  can  be  immediately  applied  to  the  production  of  heat. 

217.  Now  in  the  cases  in  which  the  Alcohol  is  thus  useful,  there 
is  an  entire  absence  of  stimulating  effects.     This  is  probably  due  in 
part  to  the  fact,  that  the  Alcohol  is  burned-off  nearly  as  fast  as  it  is 
introduced  (the  general  rule  in  such  cases  being  to  give  a  small  quan 
tity  at  a  time,  but  to  repeat  this  frequently)  ;  but  it  would  also  appear 
to  result  in  part  from  this, — that  the  stimulating  power  of  the  Alco- 
hol is  expended  in  neutralizing  (so  to  speak)  the  depressing  influence 
of  the  fever-poison  already  in  the  system,  and  that  it  simply  tends, 
therefore,  to  restore  both  the  heart  and  the  brain  to  their  condition 
of  normal  activity.     Where  the  habits  of  the  patient  have  been  pre- 
viously intemperate,  the  ordinary  doses  of  alcoholic  stimulants  have 
no  perceptible  effect;  and  it  is  necessary  to  go  on  increasing  them, 
until  some  marked  influence  is  exerted  by  them,  —  as  in  the  case 
just  now  cited. 

218.  It  is  not  only  in  the  idiopathic  typhoid  and  typhus  fevers, 
that  Alcohol  thus  becomes  the  most  important  remedy  which  the 
Physician  has  at  his  command ;  for  it  is  equally  so  in  the  typhoid 
states  of  other  diseases,  especially  Erysipelas  and  the  Exanthemata;2 
and  it  is  in  the  typhoid  form  of  erysipelas,  which  so  often  presents 
itself  in  men  of  the  bad  habit  of  body  resulting  from  habitual  intem- 
perance (§  68),  that  the  largest  quantities  of  alcoholic  stimulants 
may  be  giv^n,  without  any  other  perceptible  effect  than  that  most 
beneficial  one — the  support  of  the  system  whilst  the  disease  runs  its 
course. 

219.  Recovery  from  states  of  Prostration. — During  the  stage  of 
convalescence  from  fevers  and  acute  inflammatory  diseases,  in  which 
the  vital  powers  have  been  greatly  depressed,  it  will  frequently  hap- 
pen that  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  will  be  decidedly  beneficial ; 
and  this  apparently  in  two  ways,  —  by  raising  the  nervous  system 
from  that  low  irritative  state  which  is  the  consequence  of  depressed 
vital  power,  and  by  increasing  the  digestive  power  of  the  stomach 
and  the  general  nutritive  activity  of  the  system,  so  that  the  repara- 
tive  processes  take  place  more  rapidly,  and  the  general  vigour  is 
more  speedily  restored.     Every  practical  man  must  have  perceived, 
that  the  state  of  debility  in  which  the  patient  is  left  after  the  termi- 
nation of  an  acute  disease,  is  extremely  different  from  the  state  of 
exhaustion  consequent  upon  a  long-continued  course  of  over-excite- 
ment.   The  former  partakes  of  the  nature  of  shock;  the  vital  powers 

*  Endosmose  —  the  passage  of  water  through  organized  membranes. 

*  Exanthemata  —  erupt- ve  fevers. 


IN    THE    TREATMENT    OF    DISEASE.  165 

arc  not  so  much  exhausted  as  depressed ;  and  recovery  is  best  pro- 
moted by  arousing  the  system,  so  far  as  possible,  to  the  due  pel-' 
formance  of  its  functions.  If  alcoholic  stimulants  are  really  bene- 
ficial under  such  circumstances,  they  make  their  utility  apparent  in 
the  same  way  as  in  the  advanced  stage  of  typhoid  fever, — that  is,  by 
reducing  the  rapidity  of  the  heart's  action  at  the  same  time  that  its 
strength  increases,  and  by  calming  the  mind  instead  of  exciting  it. 
Dr.  A.  Combe  mentions  the  case  of  a  delicate  lady,  who,  during 
recovery  from  fever,  took  to  the  extent  of  a  bottle  of  Madeira  in 
twenty-four  hours,  with  these  obviously  beneficial  results.  It  is  well 
known  that  much  depends,  in  this  condition,  on  procuring  as  speedy 
a  renewal  as  possible  of  the  normal  actions  of  nutrition;  espe- 
cially where  either  the  disease,  or  the  treatment  it  has  required,  has 
caused  them  to  be  greatly  lowered,  or  almost  entirely  suspended ; 
for  there  is  great  danger  lest  the  convalescent  should  pass  into  a 
cachectic  l  condition,  and  a  foundation  be  laid  for  tubercular  2  or 
other  forms  of  disease  dependent  upon  the  imperfect  performance 
of  the  nutritive  processes.  Hence,  if  when  these  operations  are  just 
being  renewed,  a  little  increased  energy  can  be  artificially  imparted 
to  them,  we  have  a  better  hope  of  escape  from  these  evil  conse- 
quences. As  a  general  rule,  no  alcoholic  stimulants  should  be  em- 
ployed, until  after  the  complete  subsidence  of  the  inflammatory  pro- 
cesses :  but  this  rule  is  not  invariable ;  for  a  state  of  chronic  inflam- 
mation is  often  kept  up  by  the  low  and  imperfect  state  of  the  general 
nutritive  operations,  and  hence,  (as  Prof.  Alison  was  wont  to  teach 
and  to  practise  with  great  success)  however  contradictory  it  may  at 
first  appear,  we  may  frequently  combine  a  general  tonic  or  somewhat 
stimulant  regimen  with  local  depletion  or  counter-irritation.3 

220.  When  Alcoholic  stimulants  are  employed  for  these  pur- 
poses, the  greatest  care  and  watchfulness  should  be  used  in  their 
administration ;  both  to  avoid  doing  positive  mischief  by  an  over" 
dose;  and  also  to  avoid  bringing  the  system  into  a  habit  of  de^ 
pendence  upon  them,  and  thereby  predisposing  it  to  the  various 
remoter  evils  formerly  described.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a  course 
of  over-indulgence  in  alcoholic  liquors  has  frequently  commenced 
with  the  therapeutic4  use  of  them;  and  it  is  extremely  desirable, 
therefore,  that  the  medical  practitioner  should  enforce  the  diminu- 
tion of  the  dose,  and  the  final  discontinuance  of  the  remedy,  at  the 
earliest  possible  period, — substituting,  if  he  should  think  it  neces- 
sary, a  small  quantity  of  alcohol  in  some  medicinal  form, — in  order 

1  Cachectic  —  a  bad  condition  of  the  body. 

'  Tubercular  —  consumptive  ;  scrofulous. 

8  Counter-irritation  —  irritating  substances,  as  blisters,  mustard  poultices, 
&c.,  applied  to  the  part  with  the  view  of  counteracting  deep-seate  I  or  inter- 
nal inflammation. 

4  Therapeutic — medicinal;  curative. 


166  USE    OF    ALCOHOL 

tfiat  the  patient  may  have  as  little  motive  as  possible  for  continuing 
its  une,  after  the  time  for  their  really  beneficial  action  has  passed. 

221.  Support  under  Exhausting  Drains. — There  is  another  class 
of  cases,  in  which  the  stimulating  action  of  Alcoholic  liquors  may 
be  occasionally  had  recourse  to  with  advantage ;  those,  namely,  in 
which  there  is  great  drain  upon  the  nutritive  material,  owing  to 
some  disordered  action  which  at  the  same   time  lowers  the  vital 
powers  of  the  system,  —  such,  especially,  as  an  extensive  suppu- 
rating1 surface.     Now  here  the  general  rule,  that  the  appetite  and 
the  digestive  power  are  proportionate  to  the  demand  for  nutriment 
in  the  body  does  not  hold  good ;  since  the  depressing  influence  of 
the  disease  lowers  the  functional  activity  of  the  digestive  apparatus, 
to  such  a  degree  that  it  cannot  supply  what  is  needed;  and  thus 
there  is  a  progressive   diminution   of  the  nutritive   solids  of  the 
blood,  which  still  further  depresses  the  vital  powers  of  the  system, 
We  should  therefore  anticipate  a  beneficial  result  from  such  an  em- 
ployment of  alcoholic  stimulants,  as  would  for  a  time  augment  the 
digestive  power  of  the  stomach,  and  would  thus  enable  it  to  appro- 
priate and  prepare  the  amount  of  nutritive  matter  which  the  system 
really  needs,  whilst  at  the  same  time  its  general  powers  are  sus- 
tained under  the  depressing  influence  of  the  disease.     Experience 
^hows  that  such  is  the  case ;  and  that  under  such  circumstances, 
alcoholic  liquors   may  be   beneficially  employed,  not  so   much   to 
stimulate  the  heart,  or  the  nervous  system,  nor  to  take  the  place  of 
solid  food ;  but,  by  stimulating  the  stomach,  to  augment  the  quan- 
tity of  solid  material  which  it  can  advantageously  receive. 

222.  Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  unfavourable  course 
which  febrile  and  inflammatory  diseases  are  disposed  to  run  in  the 
habitually  intemperate ;  this  being  chiefly  dependent  upon  the  im- 
•perfect  elaboration2  of  plastic 3  material,  which  predisposes  to  sup- 
purative  action,  or  to  gangrenous4  or  phagedenic5  ulceration,  and 
impedes  the  attempt  at  regeneration 6  which  constitutes  a  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  sthenic 7  form  of  inflammation.     A  similar  dis- 
position to  the  asthenic8  form  of  inflammatory  disease  and  its  severe 
consequences,  is  seen  among  the  habitually  ill-fed,  ill-lodged,  ill- 
clothed  inhabitants  of  the  densest  and  worst- drained  parts  of  our 
great  towns,  many  of  whom  are  also  intemperate ;  and  in  many  of 
these  cases,  it  would  seem  requisite  to  support  the  system  by  Alco- 

1  Suppurating  —  discharging  matter. 

a  Elaboration  —  formation  ;  manufacture. 

8  Plastic  —  adhesive ;  aptness  to  become  organized. 

4  Gangrenous  — -  disposed  to  mortification. 

*  Phagedenic  —  spreading  ;  corroding. 

*  Regeneration  —  formation  of  new  substance. 

*  Sthenic  — vigorous  ;   active. 

*  Asthenic  —  feeble  ;  accompanied  by  debility. 


IN    THE    TREATMENT    OF    DISEASE.  16'. 

holic  liquors,  even  during  the  acute  stage  of  an  inflammatory  attack 
in  order  to  enable  it  to  resist  the  depressing  influence  of  the  disease, 
and  to  bear  the  requisite  treatment.  Whatever  augments  the  plasti- 
city '  of  the  fibrine,  up  to  a  certain  point,  is  likely  to  be  beneficial  • 
and  as  the  great  object  in  such  cases  is  to  give  the  requisite  support 
without  stimulus,  the  use  of  malt  liquors  will  be  indicated.  Here, 
too,  we  find  that  experience  is  in  full  accordance  with  the  teachings 
of  theory ;  and  that  ale  and  porter  are  frequently  the  physician's 
and  surgeon's  main-stay  under  such  circumstances.  They  must, 
however,  be  very  guardedly  employed ;  and  the  test  of  their  bene- 
ficial influence  will  be  found  in  the  absence  of  stimulating  effects, 
and  in  the  improvement  of  the  character  of  the  inflammatory  pro- 
cess ;  which  will  be  rnade  known,  where  there  is  purulent2  discharge? 
by  the  conversion  of  a  thin,  sauious,3  foetid4  pus  into  that  which  is 
expressively  designated  by  the  term  "  laudable," 6  and  by  the  stop- 
page of  an  extending  gangrene  or  phagedsena. 

223  The  foregoing  are  the  principal  forms  of  acute  disease,  in 
which  recourse  may  be  advantageously  had  to  Alcoholic  liquors  j 
but  the  writer  would  remark  that  whilst  general  principles  may  be 
thus  laid  down,  their  application  to  each  individual  case  must  be 
left  to  the  discrimination  and  tact  of  the  practitioner,  since  no  two 
cases  are  alike  in  all  their  conditions ;  and  it  will  frequently  happen 
that  even  the  most  experienced  physician  and  surgeon  will  find  it 
necessary  to  be  rather  guided  by  the  result  of  trials  cautiously 
made,  than  by  any  rules  whatever.  In  cases  of  fever,  it  may  be 
especially  noticed  that  the  instinct  of  the  patient,  shown  by  his  de- 
sire for  wine,  or  his  disposition  to  reject  it,  will  generally  prove  a 
most  valuable  guide,  even  when  his  intelligence  is  prostrated. 

224.  Forms  of  Alcoholic  Liquors  most  desirable. — The  different 
forms  of  alcoholic  liquors  must  not  be  used  indiscriminately  in  these 
varying  conditions,  for  their  operation  upon  the  system  differs  con- 
sideraoly,  and  there  are  certain  conditions  of  the  body  to  which 
each  is  especially  appropriate.  Thus,  distilled  spirit  is  the  most 
rapid  and  powerful  in  its  action  upon  the  heart  and  nervous  system ; 
and  hence  it  is  the  most  potent  form  of  alcoholic  liquor,  in  those 
states  of  alarming  depression  from  which  we  desire  to  arouse  the 
patient  as  rapidly  as  possible.  We  find,  too,  that  it  is  frequently 
requisite  to  administer  spirits  to  patients  who  have  been  in  the 
habit  of  free  or  excessive  indulgence  in  alcoholic  liquors,  under 
circumstances  in  which  wine  would  otherwise  be  preferable,  e  g.  in 
Fever ;  the  milder  stimulus,  in  such  cases,  not  producing  the  effect 

1  Plasticity  —  adhesiveness  ;  aptness  to  become  organized. 

*  Purulent  discharge  —  discharge  of  matter. 
3  Sanious  —  bloody. 

*  Foetid  —  having  an  offensive  smell. 
b  Laudable  —  healthy. 


168  USE    OF    ALCOHOL 

we  desire.  Where,  however,  we  desire  to  give  more  continued 
support,  with  less  of  stimulation,  it  is  not  usually  desirable  to  ad- 
minister distilled  spirit,  and  wine  will  be  found  the  preferable  form  ; 
this  is  especially  the  case  in  the  advanced  stage  of  fever,  and  in 
convalescence  from  acute  diseases.  On  the  other  hand,  where  we 
desire  to  give  still  greater  support  with  as  little  stimulation  as  pos- 
sible, as  in  the  class  of  cases  last  referred  to,  malt  liquor  may  be 
more  advantageously  employed ;  as  the  alcohol,  probably  from  its 
peculiar  state  of  admixture,  is  less  disposed  to  exert  its  remote 
effects,  and  the  nutritive  matter  with  which  it  is  combined  is  in  it- 
self beneficial ;  whilst  the  bitter  and  somewhat  calmative  properties 
of  the  hop  aid  in  producing  the  desired  effect  upon  the  stomach. 


III. TREATMENT    OP    CHRONIC    DISEASES. 

225.  Of  the  use  of  Alcoholic  liquors  in  the  treatment  of  chronic  l 
diseases,  however,  it  becomes  us  to  speak  with  much  greater  cau- 
tion ;  the  condition  of  the  system  under  the  depressing  influence  of 
"shock"  or  of  poisonous  agents,  being  very  different  from  that 
which  results  from  the  exhaustion  of  its  powers  through  chronic 
diseases,  although  debility  is  a  characteristic  of  both.  The  writer's 
idea  of  the  difference  between  the  two  states,  and  of  the  relations 
of  each  to  alcoholic  stimulants,  may  perhaps  be  best  explained  by  a 
simple  illustration.  When  a  vigorous  man  is  prostrated  by  a  vio- 
lent blow,  he  speedily  rallies  from  it,  and  is  all  the  better  for  the 
aid  of  a  helping  hand  in  getting  on  his  legs  again.  But  if  the 
same  man  expend  his  powers  in  a  prolonged  pugilistic  encounter, 
although  he  may  not  have  received  any  one  severe  injury,  he  be- 
comes  at  last  so  exhausted  that  no  helping  hand  can  avail  him  any- 
thing, and  he  sinks  beneath  the  slightest  force  put  forth  by  his 
opponent,  —  nothing  but  time  and  rest  being  then  effectual  for  his 
restoration.  In  general,  then,  it  is  believed  by  the  writer  that  little 
permanent  good  can  be  expected  from  the  use  of  alcoholic  stimu- 
lants in  chronic  diseases,  so  far,  at  least,  as  regards  their  stimulant 
operation  upon  the  heart  and  nervous  system ;  and  what  benefit 
they  are  capable  of  conferring,  will  be  obtained  by  their  improve 
ment  of  the  digestive  power,  and  of  the  processes  of  primary  as- 
similation.2 But  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  temporary  im- 
provement which  can  sometimes  be  thus  obtained,  Js  not  really 
fallacious,  —  like  that  which  we  see  in  the  burning  of  a  lamp,  just 
after  the  raising  of  the  wick,  when  there  is  a  deficiency  of  oil ;  — 
since  it  is  procured,  not  by  the  re-animation  of  power  which  exists 

1  Chronic  —  slov ;  long-continued. 

3  Assimilation —  conversion  of  food  into  living  matter  corresponding  with 
the  organs  o'  tha  body. 


IN     THE     TREA.TMENT     OF     DISEASE.  169 

in  the  body  but  has  previously  lain  dormant,  but  by  the  more  rapid 
consumption  of  the  small  stock  of  power  left.  And  the  question 
of  their  benefit  or  injury  will  often  depend  upon  whether,  by  this 
more  rapid  consumption,  new  vigour  can  be  infused  into  the  system, 
by  the  introduction  of  new  material. 

226.  The  use  of  Alcoholic  stimulants  in  such  cases  has  been 
hitherto  so  customary  with   medical  men,  that  it  may  seem  to  be 
running  in  the  face  of  the  established  results  of  experience,  to  deny 
or  even  to  doubt  their  efficacy.     But  we  have  seen  reason,  within  a 
recent  period,  to  deny  or  doubt  the  efficacy  of  many  systems  of 
treatment  of  chronic  diseases,  which  long-continued  experience  ap- 
peared to  have  sanctioned,  and  to  believe  that  the  vis  medicatrix  l 
of  the  system  is  often  itself  the  great  restorer,  when  time  is  given 
for  its  operation,   and   other   circumstances  concur   to  favour   it. 
And  it  is  especially  important,  in  judging  of  the  action  of  ail  reme- 
dies which  must  be  persevered  in  for  some  time  in  order  to  produce 
any  decided  result,  to  take  their  remote  consequences  fully  into  ac- 
count, and  to  consider  how  far  these  are,  or  are  not,  favourable  to 
our  object.     Now  the  writer  has  endeavoured  to  show  that  the  re- 
mote consequences  of  the  continued  use  of  alcoholic  liquors,  even 
in  small  quantity,  are  all  of  them  so  unfavourable  to  health,  that 
if  the  immediate  invigoration   of  the  digestive  power  and   of  the 
assimilative  processes,  which  seems  to  be  their  only  beneficial  effect 
under  such  circumstances,  can  be  obtained  in  some  other  way,  it- 
will  be  most  desirable  to  avoid  their  use. 

227.  This  will  be  more  particularly  the  case,  when  the  causes  of 
the  disordered  state  have  been  such  as  to  exhaust  the  vital  energy 
of  the  Stomach  itself,  —  such  as  long-continued  excess  in  diet,  and 
habitual  indulgence  in  a  moderate  allowance  of  fermented  liquors, 
especially  when  accompanied  by  exhaustion  of  the  nervous  power 
by  over-exertion  or  anxiety  of  mind.     It  is  quite  absurd  to  expect 
that  any  change  or  variety  of  direct  stimulation  can  re-invigorate  the 
digestive  apparatus  under  such  circumstances.     We  may  keep  our 
patient  in  town  at  his  usual  occupations,  practise  all  kinds  of  experi- 
ments upon  his  stomach,  recommend  fat  bacon  or  lean  chops,  pre- 
scribe blue-pill  and  senna-draught,  or  quinine  and  calumbo,  and  ring 
the  changes  upon  all  the  wines,  spirits,  and  malt-liquors  which  the 
cellar  can  furnish,  without  effecting  any  permanent  benefit.  Whereas, 
if  he  can  be  induced  to  give  himself  a  complete  holiday;  to  betake 
himself  to  some  agreeable  spot,  where  there  is  sufficient  to  interest, 
but  nothing  to  excite ;  to  inhale  the  fresh  and  invigorating  breezes 
of  a  mountainous  country,  in  place  of  the  close  and  deteriorated 

1  Vis  medicatrix  —  the  inherent  power  of  the  animal  system  to  repair  any 
injury  it  may  receive,  or  to  remove  the  diseases  with  which  it  may  be  at- 
tacked. 

15 


170  USE     OF    ALCOHOL 

atmosphere  of  a  town ;  to  promote  the  copious  action  of  his  skin  by 
exercise,  sweating,  and  free  ablution ;  to  wash  out  his  inside  and  in- 
crease the  tonic  power  of  his  stomach  with  occasional  (but  not  ex- 
cessive) draughts  of  cold  water;  and  to  trust  to  the  natural  call  of 
appetite  alone,  in  preference  to  artificial  provocatives; — we  shall  be 
giving  him  the  best  possible  chance  of  permanent  restoration  to 
health. 

228.  There  is  perhaps  no  class  of  cases  in  which  the  benefits  of 
the  Hydropathic  treatment  are  so  strikingly  displayed,  especially 
when  it  is  carried  on  in  a  spot  where  all  other  aids  concur  to  make 
it  most  effectual;  and  reasoning  from  analogy,  the  writer  is  strongly 
inclined  to  believe  that  it  would  be  of  similar  efficacy  in  re-invigo- 
rating the  system  exhausted  by  other  forms  of  chronic  disease,  and 
would  in  most  cases  be  preferable  to  any  form  of  alcoholic  stimu- 
lants for  procuring  an  increase  of  digestive  and  assimilative  power. 
So  far  as  the  writer  is  acquainted  with  the  results  of  comparative 
experience,  they  are  decidedly  in  favour  of  the  Hydropathic  treat- 
ment, moderately  and  judiciously  applied,  especially  in  cases  of 
chronic  Gout  and  Rheumatism ;  but  he  would  not  be  dogmatic 
enough  to  assert  that  there  are  not  individual  instances,  in  which 
(as  in  the  class  formerly  adverted  to,  §  194),  the  long-continued  or 
even  the  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquors,  will  promote  the  recovery 
from  chronic  diseases,  by  their  influence  on  the  digestive  and  assimi- 
lative apparatus.  He  does  not  see  the  possibility,  however,  of 
laying  down  any  general  rules,  by  which  such  cases  can  be  distin- 
guished ;  and  it  will  be  only  from  the  results  of  an  extended  expe- 
rience of  the  comparative  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  different 
modes  of  treatment,  and  of  the  immediate  and  remote  consequences 
of  the  employment  of  alcoholic  stimulants,  as  compared  with  those 
of  the  abstinent  system,  that  any  really  valuable  inferences  can  be 
drawn.  Until  these  shall  have  been  obtained,  he  believes  that  ab- 
stinence will  in  most  cases  be  the  safer  plan ;  except  where  the 
prostration  of  the  vital  powers  has  proceeded  to  such  an  extent,  a*» 
to  require  temporary  stimulation  for  the  performance  of  any  of  the 
nutritive  and  regenerative  operations. 


229.  It  may  not  be  amiss  to  remark,  in  conclusion,  that  it  if 
through  the  medium  of  the  Water  contained  in  the  Animal  Body, 
that  all  its  vital  functions  are  carried  on.  No  other  liquid  than 
Water  can  act  as  the  solvent  for  the  various  articles  of  food  which 
are  taken  into  the  Stomach.  It  is  Water  alone  which  forms  all  the 
fluid  portion  of  the  blood,  and  thus  serves  to  convey  the  nutritive 
material  through  the  minutest  capillary  pores  into  the  substance  of 
the  solid  tissues.  It  is  Water  which,  when  mingled  in  various  pro- 
^ortious  with  the  solid  components  of  the  various  textures,  givet'  to 


IN     THE    TREATMENT    OF    DISEASE.  171 

them  the  consistence  which  they  severally  require.  And  it  is  "Water 
which  takes  up  the  products  of  their  decay,  and  conveys  them,  by 
a  most  complicated  and  wonderful  system  of  sewerage,  altogether 
out  of  the  system.  It  would  seem  most  improbable,  then,  that  the 
habitual  admixture  of  any  other  fluid,  —  especially  of  one  which, 
like  Alcohol,  possesses  so  marked  a  physical,  chemical,  and  vital 
influence  upon  the  other  components  of  the  Animal  body, — can  be 
otherwise  than  injurious  in  the  great  majority  of  cases;  and  where 
a  benefit  is  derivable  from  it,  this  will  depend  upon  the  fact  that 
the  abnormal  condition  of  the  system  renders  some  one  or  more  of 
the  special  actions  of  alcohol  remedial  instead  of  noxious,  so  that 
the  balance  becomes  on  the  whole  in  favour  of  its  use. 


APPENDIX    A,  p.  66. 


SOME  very  remarkable  details  regarding  the  condition  of  the 
ballasters  and  Coal-whippers  employed  on  the  Thames,  have  lately 
been  ascertained  by  the  inquiries  of  the  "  Commissioner"  employed 
by  the  Morning  Chronicle,  and  have  been  made  public  in  the 
columns  of  that  newspaper.  The  drinking  habits  of  these  men 
have,  been  in  part  engendered  by  the  system  under  which  they 
have  worked  j  which  has  involved,  as  the  necessary  condition  of 
their  employment,  the  expenditure  of  a  large  part  of  their  earnings 
at  the  public-house.  This  system  was  done  away  with,  a  few  years 
since,  as  regards  the  Coal-whippers  j  but  it  still  remains  in  force 
with  respect  to  the  Ballasters.  Several  of  the  former  class  are  now 
Total  Abstainers  ;  while  others  who  adopted  the  Abstinence  system 
for  a  time  have  returned  to  their  former  habits.  The  inquiries  of 
Mr.  Mayhew,  the  "Commissioner,"  were  specially  directed  to  the 
experience  of  both  these  classes  ]  and  we  shall  first  quote  the  state- 
ment of  one  of  the  latter,  by  way  of  showing  the  extreme  severity 
of  the  labour  undergone  by  these  men,  and  the  circumstances  under 
tvhich  the  assistance  of  Alcoholic  liquors  is  sought  by  them  :  —  "I 
was  a  strict  teetotaler  for  many  years,  and  I  wish  I  could  be  eo 
now.  All  that  time  I  was  a  coal-whipper,  at  the  heaviest  work,  and 
I  have  made  one  of  a  gang  that  has  done  as  much  as  180  tons  in 
Oue  day.  I  drank  no  fermented  liquors  the  whole  of  the  time.  I 
had  only  ginger-beer  and  milk,  and  that  cost  me  Is.  6c7.  It  was  in 
the  summer  time.  I  didn't  l  buff  it'  that  day ;  that  is,  I  didn't 
take  my  shirt  off.  Did  this  work  at  Regent's  Canal,  and  there  was 
a  little  milk-shop  close  on  shore,  and  I  used  to  run  there  when  I 
was  dry.  I  had  about  two  quarts  of  milk  and  five  bottles  of  gin- 
ger-beer, or  about  three  quarts  of  fluid  altogether.  I  found  that 
amount  of  drink  necessary.  I  perspired  very  violently —  my  shirt 
was  wet  through,  and  my  flannels  wringing  wet  with  the  perspira- 
tion over  the  work.  The  rule  among  us  is  that  we  do  twenty-eight 
tons  on  deck,  and  twenty-eight  tons  filling  in  the  ship's  hold.  We 
go  on  in  that  way  throughout  the  day,  spelling  at  every  28  tons. 
The  perspiration  in  the  summer  streams  down  our  foreheads  so 
rapidly,  that  it  will  often  get  into  our  eyes  before  we  have  time  to 


APPENDIX.  173 

wipe  it  off  This  makes  the  eyes  very  sore.  At  night  when  we 
get  home  we  cannot  bear  to  sit  with  a  candle.  The  perspiration  is 
of  a  very  briny  nature,  for  I  often  taste  it  as  it  runs  down  my  lips. 
We  are  often  so  heated  over  our  work  that  the  perspiration  runs 
into  the  shoes ;  and  often,  from  the  dust  and  heat,  jumping  up  and 
down,  and  the  feet  being  galled  with  the  small  dust,  I  have  had  my 
shoes  full  of  blood.  The  thirst  produced  by  our  work  is  very  ex- 
cessive. It  is  completely  as  if  you  had  a  fever  upon  you.  The 
dust  gets  into  the  throat,  and  very  nearly  suffocates  you.  You  can 
scrape  the  coal-dust  off  the  tongue  with  the  teeth ;  and  do  what 
you  will,  it  is  impossible  to  get  the  least  spittle  into  the  mouth.  I 
have  known  the  coal-dust  to  be  that  thick  in  a  ship's  hold,  that  I 
have  been  unable  to  see  my  mate,  though  he  was  only  two  feet  from 
me.  Your  legs  totter  under  you.  Both  before  and  after  I  was  a 
teetotaler,  I  was  one  of  the  strongest  men  in  the  business.  I  was 
able  to  carry  seven  hundred  weight  on  my  back  for  fifty  yards,  and 
I  could  lift  nine  half-hundreds  with  my  right  arm.  After  finishing 
my  day's  work  I  was  like  a  child  with  weakness." 

To  the  foregoing  account,  the  following  may  be  added  from 
another  witness  by  way  of  finish  to  the  picture  : — 

"  Then  there's  the  coals  on  your  back  to  be  carried  up  a  nasty 
ladder  or  some  such  contrivance,  perhaps  twenty  feet  —  and  a  sack 
fall  of  coals  weighs  2  cwt.  and  a  stone  at  least ,  the  sack  itself  s 
heavy  and  thick.  Isn't  that  a  strain  on  a  man  ?  No  horse  could 
stand  it  long.  Then  when  you  get  fairly  out  of  the  ship  you  go 
along  planks  to  the  waggon,  and  must  look  sharp,  'specially  in 
slippery  or  wet  weather,  or  you'll  topple  over,  and  there's  the  hos- 
pital or  work-house  for  you.  Last  week  we  carried  along  planks 
sixty  feet  at  least.  There's  nothing  extra  allowed  for  distance,  but 
there  ought  to  be.  I've  sweat  to  that  degree  in  summer  that  I've 
been  tempted  to  jump  into  the  Thames  just  to  cool  myself.  The 
sweat's  run  into  my  boots,  and  I've  felt  it  running  down  me  for 
hours  as  I  had  to  trudge  along.  It  makes  men  bleed  at  the  nose 
and  mouth,  this  work  does.  Sometimes  we  put  a  bit  of  coal  in 
our  mouths  to  prevent  us  biting  our  tongues." 

Now  it  cannot  be  questioned  that  such  labour  is  greater  than  any 
man  should  be  called  on  to  perform ;  and  that  even  if  it  should  be 
proved  that  assistance  is  derived  in  its  execution  from  the  use  of 
Alcoholic  liquors,  the  fact  would  not  be  in  the  least  degree  in  their 
favour.  For  we  might  fairly  anticipate  that  under  this  artificial 
stimulation,  more  work  being  got  out  of  the  frame  than  it  is  natu- 
rally capable  of  discharging,  its  powers  would  be  exhausted  at  an 
earlier  period  than  that  to  which  they  would  be  preserved  under  a 
system  of  less  excessive  labour,  performed  without  artificial  sup- 
port. And  that  such  is  the  case,  is  abundantly  proved  by  the  fact, 
that  such  of  these  men  as  survive  the  attacks  of  acute  disease,  or 
15* 


174  APPENDIX. 

are  not  the  subjects  of  accident,  become  prematurely  old ;  and  ttuu 
among  the  whole  class,  there  are  few  who  have  passed  the  age  of 
fifty  years.  The  amount  of  Alcoholic  liquor  habitually  consumed 
by  them  may  be  judged  of  from  the  following  statements  made  to 
Mr.  Mayhew,  by  two  men  who  have  remained  firm  to  the  Total 
Abstinence  principle. — "Before  I  was  a  teetotaler  I  principally 
drank  ale.  I  judged  that  the  more  I  gave  for  my  drink  the  better 
it  was.  Upon  an  average  I  used  to  drink  from  three  to  four  pints 
of  ale  per  day.  I  used  to  drink  a  good  drop  of  gin  too.  The 
coal-porters  are  very  partial  to  dog's-nose  —  that  is,  half-a-pint  of 
ale  with  a  pennyworth  of  gin  in  it;  and  when  they  have  got  the 
money,  they  go  up  to  what  they  term  the  l  lucky-shop'  for  it.  The 
coal-porters  take  this  every  morning  through  the  week,  when  they 
can  afford  it.  After  my  work  I  used  to  drink  more  than  when  I 
was  at  it.  I  used  to  sit  as  long  as  the  house  would  let  me  have 
any.  Upon  an  average,  I  should  say,  I  used  to  take  three  or  four 
pints  more  of  an  evening ;  so  that  altogether  I  think  I  may  fairly 
say  I  drank  my  four  pots  of  ale  regularly  every  day,  and  about 
half-a-pint  of  dog's-nose.  I  reckon  my  drink  used  to  cost  me  13s. 
a  week  when  I  was  in  work.  At  times  I  was  a  noisy  drunken 
gentleman  then." 

Another  coal-porter,  who  has  been  a  teetotaler  ten  years  on  the 
25th  of  last  August,  told  Mr.  M.  that  before  he  took  the  pledge  he 
used  to  drink  a  great  deal  after  he  had  done  his  work,  but  while  he 
was  at  his  work  he  could  not  stand  it.  "  I  don't  think  I  used  to  drink 
more  than  three  pints  and-a-half  and  a  pennyworth  of  gin  in  the 
day  time/'  said  this  man.  "  Of  an  evening  I  used  to  stop  at  the 
public-house  generally  till  I  was  drunk,  and  unfit  to  work  in  the 
morning.  I  will  vouch  for  it  T  used  to  take  about  three  pots  a  day 
after  I  had  done  work.  My  reckoning  used  to  come  to  about  Is.  Sd. 
per  day,  or  including  Sundays,  about  10s.  6d.  per  week.  At  that 
time  I  could  average  all  the  year  round  30s.  a  week,  and  I  used  to 
drink  away  ten  of  it  regularly  !  I  did  indeed,  sir,  more  to  my 
shame." 

It  seems  a  legitimate  inference,  from  the  early  decay  of  the  phy- 
sical powers  of  these  men,  that  no  real  support  is  given  them  by 
Alcoholic  liquors,  in  the  performance  of  their  arduous  labour;  and 
it  is  a  remarkable  point  in  the  statements  just  quoted,  that  both 
agree  in  the  assertion,  that  the  principal  part  of  the  liquor  consumed 
is  taken  in  the  evening,  after  the  day's  toil  is  over,  as  they  "  could 
not  stand  it"  whilst  at  work.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  amount 
which  can  be  effectively  employed  as  a  stimulus  to  nervo-muscular 
exertion  is  really  small  ;  and  it  is  further  evident  that  there  is  an 
entire  absence  of  proof  that  anything  is  in  the  end  gained  by  their 
use; — a  conclusion  which  is  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  statements 


APPENDIX.  175 

made  in  the  Essay  (§§  85-102),  as  to  the   incapacity  of  Alcoholic 
liquors  for  maintaining  the  physical  powers  of  the  human  system. 

That  some  of  those  who  have  tried  the  Total  Abstinence  system 
have  gone  back  to  their  former  habits,  from  a  feeling  of  the  necessity 
of  support,  is  capable  of  being  accounted  for,  not  merely  by  the 
excessive  amount  of  labour  they  are  called  on  to  perform,  but  also 
by  the  want  of  adequate  sustenance  from  solid  food.  A  due  allow- 
ance of  this  is  unquestionably  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
strength;  and  it  appears  from  the  testimony  of  other  individuals 
similarly  employed  (given  in  the  next  Appendix),  that  where  this 
course  has  been  followed,  the  labour  has  been  performed  with  more 
ease,  and  that  the  power  of  endurance  has  been  increased. 


APPENDIX   B,  p.  87. 

THE  recent  inquiries  of  the  "Commissioner"  of  the  Morni\ ,y 
Chronicle,  not  only  reveal  the  circumstances  under  which  a  vast 
amount  of  excessive  drinking  takes  place  among  men  engaged  in 
laborious  employments,  but  also  confirm  all  that  is  stated  in  the  text 
as  to  the  possibility  of  performing  the  severest  labour  without  such 
assistance,  provided  due  support  be  obtained  from  solid  food.  The 
following  is  the  statement  made  to  Mr.  Mayhew  by  a  Coal-whipper, 
who  had  been  a  teetotaler  of  eight  years'  standing :  —  "  It's  food 
only  that  can  give  real  strength  to  the  frame.  I  have  done  more 
work  since  I  have  been  a  teetotaler  in  my  eight  years,  than  I  did  in 
ten  or  twelve  years  before.  I  have  felt  stronger.  I  don't  say. that 
1  do  my  work  better ;  but  this  I  will  say,  without  fear  of  successful 
contradiction,  that  I  do  my  work  with  more  ease  to  myself,  and  with 
more  satisfaction  to  my  employer,  since  I  have  given  over  intoxi- 
cating drinks.  I  scarcely  know  what  thirst  is.  Before  I  took  the 
pledge  I  was  always  dry;  and  the  mere  shadow  of  the  pot-boy  was 
quite  sufficient  to  convince  me  that  I  wanted  something.  I  certainly 
havn't  felt  weaker  since  I  have  left  off  malt  liquor.  I  have  eaten 
more  and  drank  less.  -  I  live  as  well  now  as  any  of  the  publicans 
do — and  who  has  a  better  right  to  do  so  than  the  man  who  works  ? 
I  have  backed  as  many  as  sixty  tons  in  a  day  since  I  took  the  pledge, 
and  have  done  it  without  any  intoxicating  drink  with  perfect  ease  to 
myself,  and  walked  five  miles  to  a  temperance  meeting  afterwards. 
But  before  I  became  a  teetotaler,  after  the  same  amount  of  work  I 
should  scarcely  have  been  able  to  crawl  home.  I  should  have  been 
certain  to  have  lost  the  next  day's  work  at  least;  but  now  I  cau 


176  APPENDIX. 

back  that  quantity  of  coals  week  after  week  without  losing  a  day 
I've  got  a  family  of  six  children  under  twelve  years  of  age.  My 
wife's  a  teetotaler,  and  has  suckled  four  children  upon  the  principle 
of  total  abstinence.  Teetotalism  has  made  my  home  quite  happy, 
and  what  I  get  goes  twice  as  far.  Where  I  work  now,  four  of  us 
out  of  five  are  teetotalers.  I  am  quite  satisfied  that  the  heaviest 
work  that  a  man  can  possibly  do,  may  be  done  without  a  drop  of 
fermented  liquor.  I  say  so  from  my  own  experience.  All  kinds 
of  intoxicating  drinks  is  quite  a  delusion.  We  teetotalers  can  do 
the  work  better,  that  is,  with  more  ease  to  ourselves,  than  the 
drinkers  can.  Many  teetotalers  have  backed  coals  out  of  the  hold, 
and  I  have  heard  them  say  over  and  over  again  that  they  did  their 
work  with  more  comfort  and  ease  than  they  did  when  they  drank 
intoxicating  drink.  Coal-backing  from  the  ship's  hold  is  the  hardest 
work  that  it  is  possible  for  a  man  to  do.  Going  up  a  ladder  sixteen 
feet  high,  with  238  Ibs.  weight  upon  a  man's  back,  is  sufficient  to 
kill  any  one;  indeed,  it  does  kill  the  men  in  a  few  years — they're 
soon  old  men  at  that  work." 

It  appears  from  the  statement  of  this  man,  —  1st,  That  he  could 
do  more  work  in  the  time,  on  the  total  abstinence  system,  than  on 
his  previous  system; — 2nd,  That  he  could  do  it  with  more  ease  and 
comfort  to  himself;  —  3d,  That  at  the  end  of  his  day's  labour  he 
was  not  too  much  fatigued  to  prevent  him  from  voluntarily  walking 
five  miles  to  a  temperance  meeting;  whilst  (like  the  first  witness 
cited  in  the  preceding  Appendix,  who  spoke  of  himself  as  "  like  a 
child  with  weakness"  when  his  toil  was  over,)  he  was  previously 
able  to  crawl  home. 


APPENDIX  C,  p.  157. 

On  the  effect  of  Water- Drinking  in  the  cure  of  Gout ;  by  JOHN 
BoSTOCK,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  —  Communicated  to  the  Medico- Chirur- 
(jical  Society. 

"THE  case  to  which  I  propose  to  direct  the  attention  of  the 
Society,  is  that  of  a  gentleman  seventy  years  of  age,  who  had  been, 
from  a  very  early  period  of  his  life,  subject  to  very  frequent  attacks 
of  gout,  the  predisposition  to  which  complaint  is  inherited  from  his 
parents.  Connected  with  this,  he  has  been  a  constant  sufferer  from 
stomach-affections  of  various  kinds;  acidity,  flatulence,  heart-burn, 
ii regularity  of  the  bowels,  and  in  short,  from  every  one  of  the 


APPENDIX. 


177 


affections  which  are  enumerated  in  Cullen's  well-known  definition 
of  dyspepsia.  His  mode  of  life  was  regular  and  moderately  active, 
and  his  diet  what  might  be  styled  temperate,  although  not  abste- 
mious. He  had,  indeed,  been  advised  by  his  medical  friends  to  take 
wine  in  moderate  quantity ;  he  had  occasionally  employed  ale,  porter, 
and  brandy-and-water,  but  never  in  what  could  be  considered  an  ex- 
cessive quantity.  In  this  way  he  had  passed  about  forty  years, 
seldom  actually  confined  by  indisposition,  but  almost* always  subject 
to  a  succession  of  ailments,  which  rendered  it  necessary  to  have  re- 
course to  medicines  of  various  kinds,  and,  more  especially,  to  alkalies, 
which  were  taken  in  large  quantity,  and,  as  the  symptoms  appeared 
to  indicate,  to  purgatives  or  to  sedatives,  and  to  a  variety  of  tonics 
and  stimulants.  During  this  period,  the  renal  secretion  was  seldom 
in  what  could  be  considered  a  perfectly  healthy  state ;  it  was  some- 
times loaded  with  deposits,  and  of  high  specific  gravity ;  sometimes 
of  low  specific  gravity,  limpid  and  aqueous;  sometimes  very  copious, 
at  other  times  scanty;  while  its  chemical  constitution  was  most 
variable  both  as  to  the  nature  and  the  proportion  of  its  saline 
contents. 

"  About  four  years  ago,  in  consequence  of  the  accession  of  certain 
alarming  symptoms  of  a  new  description,  which  were  supposed  to 
require  the  antiphlogistic  treatment,  the  patient  was  ordered  by  his 
medical  attendants  to  reduce  his  system  of  diet,  and,  more  especially, 
to  abstain  entirely  from  fermented  liquors  or  distilled  spirits  of  any 
description.  By  this  restriction,  and  by  other  appropriate  remedies, 
the  threatened  disease  was  averted.  And  besides  this  fortunate 
result,  the  patient  found  his  general  state  of  health  and  feelings  so 
much  improved  by  the  change  of  diet,  that  the  abstinence  from  all 
kinds  of  liquors  has  been  strictly  adhered  to  up  to  the  present  period. 
The  effect  has  been  that  he  has  lost  all  the  dyspeptic  symptoms  to 
which  he  had  been  subject  for  upwards  of  forty  years  ;  and,  what 
[  am  more  particularly  desirous  of  pointing  out  to  the  Society, 
the  renal  secretion  has  been  now,  for  a  long  period,  in  a  perfectly 
natural  state:  it  is  nearly  uniform  in  its  specific  gravity,  and  is 
totally  free  from  all  the  morbid  deposits,  which  were  before  seldom 
absent  from  it.  And  there  is  a  circumstance  connected  with  it, 
which  I  conceive  to  be  particularly  deserving  of  attention;  that 
although  of  an  average  specific  gravity,  and  containing  the  proper 
proportion  of  urea  and  saline  ingredients,  it  is  uniformly  increased 
in  quantity,  so  that  there  has  been  now,  for  several  months,  con- 
siderably more  of  these  substances  discharged  from  the  system  than 
was  formerly  the  case.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  the  abstrac- 
tion of  alcohol  has  produced  a  more  healthy  state  of  the  digestive 
and  secreting  functions ;  so  that  the  functions  of  the  kidney  are 
more  actively  and  effectively  performed." — Medical  Gazette^  Feb. 
23-rd,  1844. 


178  APPENDIX. 

To  this  interesting  case,  which  is  understood  to  be  that  of  Dr. 
Bostock  himself,  may  be  added  the  following,  from  the  Bristol  Tem- 
perance Herald. 

"  Rebecca  Griffiths,  the  individual  referred  to,  resided  in  this  city 
(Bristol)  the  larger  portion  of  her  long  life,  and  until  her  eighty' 
ninth  year  had  daily  taken  as  a  beverage  some  kind  of  intoxicating 
drink.  Beer,  and  occasionally  gin-and-water,  had  been  commonly 
used ;  but  for  a  few  years  before  practising  total  abstinence,  she  took 
daily  a  small  portion  of  the  best  Madeira  wine  —  having,  perhaps, 
both  as  regarded  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  liquor,  every  advan- 
tage that  any  one  could  possess  in  using  a  stimulating  drink.  This 
•  practice  she  relinquished  all  at  once  in  the  eighty-ninth  year  of  her 
age.  For  a  time  it  was  feared  her  health  would  suffer,  but  it  was 
soon  manifest  that  those  fears  were  groundless ;  her  appetite  im- 
proved with  the  change  of  diet,  and  occasional  interruptions  by  a 
disordered  stomach  were  much  less  frequent ;  she  would  at  times 
observe,  that  she  could  eat,  drink,  and  sleep,  as  well  as  at  almost 
any  period  of  her  life  ;  nor  did  her  spirits  appear  to  suffer  even  tem- 
porarily. For  nearly  fifteen  years  she  had  been  tried  with  a  sore  in 
one  of  her  legs,  which  was  troublesome,  and  at  times  appeared  to 
be  dangerous ;  after  practising  teetotalism  for  about  a  year  and  a 
half,  this  sore  began  to  diminish,  and  was  soon  perfectly  healed.  At 
the  expiration  of  two  years  she  had  a  rather  violent  attack  of  influ- 
enza, which  brought  her  so  low  that  her  medical  attendant  recom- 
mended wine,  to  which  she  had  recourse  for  about  six  months,  when 
the  wound  in  her  leg  again  opened,  and  became  troublesome ;  the 
wine  was  consequently  discontinued,  and  after  the  lapse  of  a  few 
months  the  sore  again  healed  up  I  Her  health  also  improved  yet 
more  decidedly  than  after  her  first  trial  of  total  abstinence,  and  she 
continued  until  within  a  few  days  of  her  decease  (which  took  place 
in  the  spring  of  1843)  in  the  enjoyment  of  excellent  health  and 
spirits,  and  the  full  possession  of  nearly  all  her  faculties,  although 
93  years  old. 


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POWNE  (GEORGE) .     A  MANUAL  OF  ELEMENTARY  CHEMISTRY. 

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by  over  1300  engravings.  Fourth  edition,  revised  and  improved. 
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A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  DISEASES,  INJURIES 

AND  MALFORMATIONS  OF  THE  URINARY  BLADDER,  THE 
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ELEMENTS  OF  PATHOLOGICAL  ANATOMY.     Third  edition. 


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HARTSHORNE  (HENRY).  ESSENTIALS  OF  THE  PRINCIPLES 
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HARTSHORNE  (HENRY).  CONSPECTUS  OF  THE  MEDICAL 
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HUDSON  (A.)  LECTURES  ON  THE  STUDY  OF  FEVER.  1  vol. 
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HARRISON'S  ESSAY  TOWARD  A  CORRECT  THEORY  OF  THE 
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HOBLYN  (RICHARD  D.)  A  DICTIONARY  OF  THE  TERMS  USED 
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HODGE  (HUGH  L.)     ON  DISEASES  PECULIAR  TO  WOMEN,  IN- 
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HOLLAND  (SIR  HENRY).  MEDICAL  NOTES  AND  REFLECTIONS. 
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TTODGES  (RICHARD  M.)    PRACTICAL  DISSECTIONS.    Second  edi- 
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SILLIER  (THOMAS).  HAND  BOOK  OF  SKIN  DISEASES.  In  one 
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HALL  (MRS.  M.)  LIVES  OF  THE  QUEENS  OF  ENGLAND  BEFORE 
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TONES  (C.  HANDFIELD) ,  AND  SIEVEKING  (E.  D.  H.)     A  MANUAL 
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TONES  (C.  HANDFIELD).     CLINICAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  FUNG- 
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EIRKES  (WILLIAM  SENHOUSE).  A  MANUAL  OF  PHYSIOLOGY. 
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ENAPP  (F.)  TECHNOLOGY ;  OR  CHEMISTRY  APPLIED  TO  THE 
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TT-ENNEDY'S  MEMOIRS  OF  THE  LIFE  OF  WILLIAM  WIRT.     In 
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LEA  (HENRY  C.)  SUPERSTITION  AND  FORCE ;  ESSAYS  ON  THE 
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TALLEMAND    (M.)    AND    WILSON    (MARRIS).      A    PRACTICAL 

J-l     TREATISE  ON  THE  CAUSES,  SYMPTOMS,  AND  TREATMENT 

OF    SPERMATORRHOEA.      Translated   and   edited  by   Henry   J. 

McDougall.     Fifth  American  edition.     To  which  is  added ON 

DISEASES  OF  THE  VESICUL^  SEMINALES.  With  special  re- 
ference to  the  Morbid  Secretions  of  the  Prostatic  and  Urethra! 
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T  A  ROCHE  (R.)     YELLOW  FEVER  IN  ITS  HISTORICAL,  PATHO- 
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PNEUMONIA,   ITS   SUPPOSED    CONNECTION,    PATHOLO- 
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T  AURENCE  (J.  Z.)   AND  MOON   (ROBERT  C.)     A   HANDY  BOOK 
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LEHMANN  (C.  G.)  PHYSIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY.  Translated  by 
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A  MANUAL  OF  CHEMICAL  PHYSIOLOGY.     Translated  with 

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8  HENRY  C.  LEA'S  PUBLICATIONS. 

T  AWSON  (3EORGE).   INJURIES  OF  THE  EYE,  ORBIT,  AND  EYE- 
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TAYCOCK    (THOMAS).     LECTURES   ON. THE   PRINCIPLES    AND 
-Ll     METHODS  OF  MEDICAL  OBSERVATION  AND  RESEARCH.    In 

one  12mo.  vol.,  extra  cloth,  $1. 

T  UDLOW  (J.  L.)     A  MANUAL  OF  EXAMINATIONS  UPON  ANA^ 
•Ll     TOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  SURGERY,  PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE, 

OBSTETRICS,  MATERIA  MEDICA,  CHEMISTRY,  PHARMACY, 

AND  THERAPEUTICS.     To  which  is  added  a  Medical  Formulary. 

Third  edition.     In  one  royal  12mo.  vol.  of  over  800   pages,    extra 

cloth,  $3  25  ;  leather,  $3  75. 

T  YONS  (ROBERT  D.)     A  TREATISE  ON  FEVER.     In  one  neat  8vo. 
-Ll    vol.  of  362  pages,  extra  cloth,  $2  25. 

T  YNCH  (W.  F.)     A  NARRATIVE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  EX- 
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maps,  cloth,  $3. 

Same  Work,  condensed  edition.     One  volume  royal  12mo.,  extra 

cloth,  $1. 

MARSHALL  (JOHN).  OUTLINES  OF  PHYSIOLOGY,  HUMAN 
AND  COMPARATIVE.  With  Additions  by  FRANCIS  G.  SMITH, 
M.  D.,  Professor  of  the  Institutes  of  Medicine  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  In  one  8vo.  volume  of  1026  pages,  with  122  illustra- 
tions. Strongly  bound  in  leather,  raised  bands,  $7  50  ;  extra  cloth, 
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MACLISE  (JOSEPH).     SURGICAL   ANATOMY.     In  one  large   im- 
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taining 190  figures,  many  of  them  life  size,  extra  cloth,  $14. 
MALGAIGNE'S  OPERATIVE  SURGERY.     With  numerous  illustra- 
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MANUALS  OF  BLOOD  AND  URINE.     By  Griffith,  Reese,  and  Mar- 
wick.     1  vol.  12mo.  of  460  pages,  extra  cloth,  $1  25. 
MAYNE'S    DISPENSATORY    AND    THERAPEUTICAL     REMEM- 
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MACKENZIE  (W.)  A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  DISEASES  AND 
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pages,  with  plates  and  numerous  wood-cuts,  extra  cloth,  $C  50. 

MEIGS  (CHAS.  D.)  OBSTETRICS,  THE  SCIENCE  AND  THE  ART. 
Fifth  edition,  revised,  with  130  illustrations.  In  one  beautifully 
printed  8vo.  vol.  of  760  pages,  extra  cloth,  $5  50  ;  leather,  $6  50. 

WOMAN  :  HER  DISEASES  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES.     Fourth 

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extra  cloth,  $5  ;  leather,  $6. 
-ON  THE  NATURE,  SIGNS,  AND  TREATMENT  OF  CHILD-BED 


M1 


FEVER      In  one  8vo.  vol.  of  365  pages,  extra  cloth,  $2. 

riLLER  (HENRY).  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  OBSTET- 
RICS, &c.  In  one  very  handsome  8vo.  vol.  of  over  600  pages, 
extra  cloth,  S3  75. 

TV/TILLER  (JAMES) .    PRINCIPLES  OF  SURGERY.    Fourth  American, 
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pages,  with  240  illustrations,  extra  cloth,  $3  75. 

THE  PRACTICE  OF  SURGERY.     Fourth  American,  from  the 

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MONTGOMERY  (W.  F.)  AN  EXPOSITION  OP  THE  SIGNS  AND 
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MORLAND  (W.  W.)  DISEASES  OF  THE  URINARY  ORGANS.  With 
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MILLWRIGHT'S   GUIDE.      By  Oliver  Evans.      Fourteenth   edition. 
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MULLER  '(J-)     PRINCIPLES  OF  PHYSICS  AND  METEOROLOGY. 
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MIRABEAU;  A  LIFE  HISTORY.  In  one  royal  12mo.  vol.,  cloth, 
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MACFARLAND'S  TURKEY  AND  ITS  DESTINY.  In  2  vols.  royal 
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MARSH  (MRS.)     A  HISTORY  OF  THE  PROTESTANT  REFORMA- 
TION IN  FRANCE.     In  2  vols.  royal  12mo.,  extra  cloth,  $2. 
"NTEILL   (JOHN)   AND  SMITH    (FRANCIS  G.)     COMPENDIUM  OF 
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handsome    12mo.   vol.   of  about   1000   pages,    with  374   wood-cuts, 

extra  cloth,  $4  ;  leather,  raised  bands,  $4  75.     • 

•VTELIGAN  (J.  MOORE).     A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  DISEASES 
•L*    OF  THE  SKIN.     Fifth  American,  from  the  second  Dublin  edition. 

In  one  neat  royal  12ino.  vol.  of  462  pages,  extra  cloth,  $2  25. 
AN  ATLAS  OF  CUTANEOUS  DISEASES.     In  one  handsome 

quarto  vol.  with  beautifully  colored  plates,  &c.,  extra  cloth,  $5  50. 

NIEBTJHR   (B.   G.)     LECTURES   ON    ANCIENT    HISTORY;    com- 
prising    the     history    of    the     Asiatic     Nations,     the     Egyptians, 
Greeks,   Macedonians,   and   Carthagenians.     Translated  by  Dr.  L. 
Schrnitz.     In  three  neat  volumes,  crown  octavo,  cloth,  $5  00. 
pARRISH  (EDWARD).    A  TREATISE  ON  PHARMACY.    With  many 
•L      Formulae  and  Prescriptions.      Third  edition.     In  one  handsome  8vo. 
vol.  of  850  pages,  with  several  hundred  illustrations,  extra  cloth,  $5. 
PEASLEE  (E.  R.)     HUMAN  HISTOLOGY  IN  ITS  RELATIONS  TO 
•t     ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  PATHOLOGY.     With  434  illus- 
trations.    In  one  8vo.  vol.  of  600  pages,  extra  cloth,  $3  75. 
pIRRIE  (WILLIAM)      THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  SUR- 
-L      GERY.     In  one  handsome  octavo  volume  of  780  pages,  with  316 

illustrations,  extra  cloth,  $3  75. 

pEREIRA  (JONATHAN).     MATERIA  MEDIC  A  AND  THERAPEU- 

•L      TICS.     An  abridged  edition  of  the  late  Dr.  Pereira's  "Elements  of 

Materia  Medica."     With  numerous  additions  and  references  to  the 

United  States  Pharmacopoeia.     In  one  large  octavo  volume,  of  1040 

pages,  with  236  illustrations,  extra  cloth  $7 ;  leather,  raised  bands,  $8. 

pULSZKY'S  MEMOIRS  OF  AN  HUNGARIAN  LADY.     In   one  neat 

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pAGET'S  HUNGARY  AND  TRANSYLVANIA.     In  two  royal  12mo. 
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ROBERTS  (WILLIAM).     A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  URINARY 
AND  RENAL  DISEASES.     With  numerous  illustrations.     In  one 
very  handsome  8vo.  vol.  of  516  pages,  extra  cloth,  $4  50. 
•DOYLE  ( J.  FORBES).   MATERIA  MEDICA  AND  THERAPEUTICS. 
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pages,  with  98  illustrations,  extra  cloth,  $3. 


10  HENRY  C.  LEA'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


pAMSBOTHAM   (FRANCIS   H.)     THE   PRINCIPLES   AND    PRAC- 
-LV)    TICE  OF  OBSTETRIC  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY.     In  one  im- 
perial 8vo.  vol.  of  650  pages,  with  64  plates,  besides  numerous  wood- 
cuts in  the  text.     Strongly  bound  in  leath'er  $7. 

pIGBY    (EDWARD).     THE  CONSTITUTIONAL  TREATMENT   OF 
•Ew    FEMALE  DISEASES.     In  one  neat  royal  12mo.  vol.  of  about  250 
pp.,  extra  cloth,  $1. 

A  SYSTEM  OF  MIDWIFERY.     Second  American  edition.    In 

one  handsome  8vo.  vol.  of  422  pages,  extra  cloth,  $2  50. 

EOKITANSKY  (CARL).  A  MANUAL  OF  PATHOLOGICAL  ANA- 
TOMY. Translated  by  W.  E.  Swaine,  Edward  Sieveking,  C.  H. 
Moore,  and  G.  E.  Day.  Four  vols.  8vo.,  bound  in  two.  About  1200 
pages,  extra  cloth,  $7  50. 

RANKE'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  TURKISH  AND  SPANISH  EMPIRES 
in  the  16th  and  beginning  of  17th  Century.  In  one  8vo.  volume, 
paper,  25  cts. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  REFORMATION  IN  GERMANY.     Parts  I. 

II.  III.     In  one  vol.,  extra  cloth,  $1. 

OARGENT  (F.  W.)     ON  BANDAGING  AND  OTHER  OPERATIONS 
*3     OF  MINOR  SURGERY.     New  edition,  with  an  additional  chapter 
on  Military  Surgery.     In  one  handsome  royal  12mo.  vol.  of  nearly 
400  pages,  with  184  wood-cuts,  extra  cloth,  $1  75. 

SMITH  (LEWIS  J.)  A  TREATISE  ON  THE  DISEASES  OF  IN- 
FANCY AND  CHILDHOOD.  A  New  Work,  now  ready.  In  one 
large  Svo.  volume  of  620  pages,  strongly  bound  in  leather,  $5  75  ; 
extra  cloth,  $4  75. 

QHARPEY    (WILLIAM)    AND    QTJAIN    (JONES   AND    RICHARD) 

Id     HUMAN  ANATOMY.     With  notes  and  additions  by  Jos.    Leidy, 

M.D.,  Prof,  of  Anatomy  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.     In  two 

large  Svo.  vols.  of  about  1300  pages,  with  51 1  illustrations,  extra  cl.  $6. 

SIMPSON  (SIR  JAMES  Y.)     CLINICAL  LECTURES  ON  THE  DIS- 
EASES OP  WOMEN.     (A  new  edition  preparing.) 
SIMON'S  GENERAL  PATHOLOGY.     In  one  Svo.   vol.  of  212  pages 
extra  cloth,  $1  25. 

SKEY  (FREDERIC  C.)     OPERATIVE  SURGERY.     In  one  Svo.  vol. 
of  over  650  pages,  with  about  100  wood-cuts,  cloth,  $3  25. 
SLADE  CD.  D.)     DIPHTHERIA  ;  ITS  NATURE  AND  TREATMENT. 
Second  edition.     In  one  neat  royal  12mo.  vol.,  extra  cloth,  $1  25. 
SMITH  (HENRY  H.)  AND  HORNER  (WILLIAM  E.)     ANATOMICAL 
ATLAS.  Illustrative  of  the  structure  of  the  Human  Body.  In  one  large 
imperial  Svo.  vol.,  with  about  650  beautiful  figures,  extra  cloth,  $4  50. 

SMITH   (EDWARD).     CONSUMPTION;    ITS  EARLY  AND   REME- 
DIABLE STAGES.     In  one  Svo.  vol.  of  254  pp.,  extra  cloth,  $2  25. 
SOLLY    (SAMUEL).      THE    HUMAN    BRAIN;    ITS   STRUCTURE, 
PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  DISEASES.     In  one  neat  Svo.  vol.  of  500  pp. 
with  120  wood-cuts,  extra  cloth,  $2  50. 

STILLE  (ALFRED).    THERAPEUTICS  AND  MATERIA   MEDIC  A. 
Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.     In  two  large  and  handsome 
Svo.  vols.,  extra  cloth,  $10;  leather,  $12.     (Just  issued.) 
QALTER  (H.  H.)     ASTHMA  ;  ITS  PATHOLOGY,  CAUSES,  CONSE- 
IO    QUENCES,  AND  TREATMENT.     In  one  volume  Svo.,  extra  cloth, 
$250. 

qCHOEDLER  (FREDERICK)  AND  MEDLOCK  (HENRY) .   WONDERS 

W     OF  NATURE.   An  elementary  introduction  to  the  Sciences  of  Physics, 

Astronomy,     Chemistry,    Mineralogy,    Geology,    Botany,     Zoology, 

and  Physiology.     Translated  from  the  German  by  H.  Medlock.     In 

one  neat  Svo.  vol.,  with  679  illustrations,  extra  cloth,  $3. 


HENRY  C.  LEA'S  PUBLICATIONS.  11 

SMALL  BOOKS  ON  GREAT  SUBJECTS.  Twelve  works ;  each  one  15 
cents,  sewed,  forming  a  neat  and  cheap  series  ;  or  done  up  in  3  vols., 
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QTRICKLAND    (AGNES).     LIVES  OF  THE  QUEENS   OF   HENRY 
&     THE  VIII.  AND  OF  HIS  MOTHER.     In  one  crown  octavo  vol., 

extra  cloth,  $1  ;  black  cloth,  90  cents. 
MEMOIRS  OF  ELIZABETH,  SECOND  QUEEN  REGNANT  OF 

ENGLAND  AND  IRELAND.     In  one  crown  octavo  vol.,  extra  cloth, 

$140;  black  cloth,  $1  30. 

SCHMITZ  AND  ZTJMPT'S  CLASSICAL  SERIES.     In  royal  18mo. 
CORNELII  NEPOTIS  LIBER  DE  EXCELLENTIBUS  DUCIBUS 

EXTERARUM  GENTIUM,  CUM  VITIS  CATONIS-ET  ATTICI. 

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C.  I.  C^ISARIS  COMMENTARII  DE  BELLO  GALLICO.  With  notes, 

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bound,  70  cents. 
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Q.  CURTII  RUFII  DE  GESTIS  ALEXANDRI  MAGNI  LIBRI  VIII. 

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90  cents. 
P.  VIRGILII  MARONIS  CARMINA  OMNIA.     Price  in  extra  cloth, 

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M.  T.  CICERONIS  ORATIONES  SELECTS  XII.     With  notes,  Ac. 

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ECLOG^l  EX  Q.  HORATII  FLACCI  POEMATIBUS.     With  notes, 

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ADVANCED    LATIN    EXERCISES,     WITH     SELECTIONS    FOR 

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half  bound,  70  cents. 

rpANNER  (THOMAS  HAWKES).    A  MANUAL  OF  CLINICAL  MEDI- 
-L     CINE  AND   PHYSICAL   DIAGNOSIS.     Third  American  from  the 
second  revised  English  edition.     In  one  handsome  12mo.  vol.      (Pre- 
paring for  early  publication.) 

ON  THE  SIGNS  AND  DISEASES  OF  PREGNANCY.     First 

American  from  the  second  English  edition.  With  four  colored  plates 
and  numerous  illustrations  on  wood.  In  one  vol.  8vo.  of  about  500 
pages,  extra  cloth,  $4  25.  (Just  issued.) 

rjTAYLOR  (ALFRED  S.)    MEDICAL  JURISPRUDENCE.    Sixth  Ameri- 

-*•     can  from  the  eighth  London  edition.     With  notes  and  references  to 

American  Decisions,  by  C.  B.  Penrose  of  the  Philadelphia  Bar.     In 

one  large  8vo.  vol.  of  776  pages,  extra  cloth,  $4  50  ;  leather,  $5  50. 

mHOMAS  (T.  GAILLARD).     A  COMPLETE  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 

1     ON  THE  DISEASES  OF  FEMALES.     Second  and  revised  edition. 

In  one  large  and  handsome  octavo  volume  of  about  650  pages,  with 

illustrations,  extra  cloth,  $5  ;  leather,  $6.     (Now  ready.) 

TODD  (ROBERT  B.)  AND  BOWMAN  (W.)  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ANA- 
TOMY AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  MAN.  In  one  large  8vo.  vol.  of 
about  950  pages,  with  300  illustrations  on  wood,  extra  cloth,  $4  75. 

ryiDDD  (ROBERT  BENTLEY).     CLINICAL  LECTURES  ON  CERTAIN 
J-     ACUTE  DISEASES.    In  one  vol.  8vo.  of  320  pp.,  extra  cloth,  $2  50. 

rpOYNBEE  (JOSEPH).    THE  DISEASES  OF  THE  EAR  :  Their  nature, 

-L     Diagnosis,    and   Treatment.       Second    American    edition.       In  one 

handsome  8vo.  vol.  of  440  pp.,  with  100  illustrations,  extra  cloth,  $4. 


12  HENRY  C.  LEA'S  PUBLICATIONS. 

THOMPSON  (SIR  HENRY).    CLINICAL  LECTURES  ON  DISEASES 
-L     OF  THE  URINARY  ORGANS.     In  one  8vo.  volume  of  204  pages, 
with  illustrations,  extra  cloth,  $2  25.     (Now  ready.) 

WALES  (PHILIP  S.)  MECHANICAL  THERAPEUTICS  :  A  Prac- 
tical Treatise  on  Surgical  Apparatus,  Appliances,  and  Elementary 
Operations  ;  embracing  Minor  Surgery,  Bandaging,  Orthopraxy,  and 
Treatment  of  Fractures  and  Dislocations.  In  one  large  8vo.  vol.  of 
about  700  pages,  with  642  illustrations  on  wood,  extra  cloth,  $5  75  ; 
leather,  $6  75.  (Just  issued.) 

WELLS  (J.  SOELBERG).  A  TREATISE  ON  THE  DISEASES  OF 
THE  EYE.  Edited  with  additions.  In  one  large  and  handsome 
octavo  volume,  with  6  colored  plates  and  several  hundred  wood-cuts. 
(In  press.) 

WALSHE  (W.  H.)  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  DISEASES 
OF  THE  HEART  AND  GREAT  VESSELS.  Third  American  from 
the  third  revised  London  edition.  In  one  8vo.  vol.  of  420  pages, 
extra  cloth,  $3. 

WHAT  TO   OBSERVE  AT  THE   BEDSIDE  AND  AFTER  DEATH 
""  IN  MEDICAL  CASES.    In  one  royal  12mo.  vol.,  extra  cloth,  $1. 

WATSON  (THOMAS).  LECTURES  ON  THE  PRINCIPLES  AND 
PRACTICE  OF  PHYSIC.  A  new  American  from  the  last  revised 
English  edition,  with  additions  by  D.  Francis  Condie.  With  185 
illustrations  on  wood.  In  one  very  large  volume  imperial  8vo.  of 
over  1200  pages,  in  small  type,  extra  cloth,  $6  50  ;  strongly  bound 
in  leather,  raised  bands,  $7  50. 

WEST  (CHARLES).     LECTURES  ON  THE  DISEASES  PECULIAR 
W   TO  WOMEN.     Third  American  from  the  Third  English  edition.     In 
one  octavo  volume  of  550  pages,  extra  cloth,  $3  75  ;  leather,  $4  75. 
(Now  ready.) 

LECTURES  ON  THE  DISEASES  OF  INFANCY  AND  CHILD- 

HOOD.  Fourth  American  from  the  fifth  revised  English  edition.  In 
one  large  8vo.  vol.  of  656  clasely  printed  pages,  extra  cloth,  $4  50  ; 
leather,  $5  50. 

AN  ENQUIRY  INTO  THE  PATHOLOGICAL  IMPORTANCE 

OF  ULCERATION  OF  THE  OS  UTERI.     In  one  vol.  8vo.,  extra 
cloth,  $1  25. 

WILLIAMS  (CHARLES  J.  B.)  PRINCIPLES  OF  MEDICINE.  A 
new  American  from  the  third  revised  London  edition.  In  one  8vo. 
vol.  of  about  500  pages,  extra  cloth,  $3  50. 

TTfTILSON   (ERASMUS).     A  SYSTEM  OF  HUMAN  ANATOMY.     A 
•  »    new  and  revised  American  from  the  last  English  edition.    Illustrated 
with  397  engravings  on  wood.     In  one  handsome  8vo.  vol.  of  over 
600  pages,  extra  cloth,  $4  ;  leather,  $5. 

THE  DISSECTOR'S  MANUAL.     Third  American  from  the  last 

revised  London  edition.     In  one  large  12mo.  vol.  of  582  pages,  with 
154  illustrations,  extra  cloth,  $2. 

ON  DISEASES  OF  THE  SKIN.     The  seventh  American  from 

the  last  English  edition.     In  one  large  8vo.  vol.  of  over  800  pages, 
extra  cloth,  $5.      (Just  ready.) 

Also  A  SERIES  OF  PLATES,  illustrating  "  Wilson  on  Diseases  of  the 
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colored,  representing  about  one  hundred  varieties  of  Disease.  $5  50. 

Also,  the  TEXT  AND  PLATES,  bound  in  one  volume,  extra  cloth,  $10. 

THE  STUDENT'S  BOOK  OF  CUTANEOUS  MEDICINE.     In 

one  handsome  royal  12mo.  vol.,  extra  cloth,  $3  50. 

WINSLOW  (FORBES).  ON  OBSCURE  DISEASES  OF  THE  BRAIN 
AND  DISORDERS  OF  THE  MIND.  In  one  handsome  8vo.  rol. 
of  nearly  600  pages,  extra  cloth,  $4  25. 


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